AP Psych Daviscourt version Units 0-5

Psychology

The scientific study of cognition (mental or thought processes) and behavior

Empiricism

Careful observation and testing

Critical thinking

Examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Hindsight Bias

Tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (“Oh I knew that would happen”)

Overconfidence

Humans tend to think we know more than we do.

Perceive order at random events

Natural eagerness to make sense of our world— we’re prone to perceive patterns, even where there aren’t any.

Conformation Bias

Tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

Peer reviewers

People who evaluate a scientist’s findings in a scientific journal, they evaluate the study’s theory originality, and accuracy.

Theory

Explanations that apply an integrated set of principles to organize observations.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction that is falsifiable (can be disproven with observation or experiment).

Operational definition

Carefully worded statements of exact procedures used in a study which allows others to replicate the study.

Sampling bias

May not accurately represent the broader population (convenience sampling might fall to this), flawed sampling process that produces and unrepresentative sample.

Stratified sampling

Increase the chances a sample represents the larger population which involves diving the population into subgroups based on shared characteristics then randomly selecting subsamples of the desired size from each subgroup.

Representative sample,

Every person in the population has an equal chance of selection, this allows researchers to generalize findings to the population.

Case study

One individual or group is studied in-depth in hopes of revealing things true of us all. (Good for rare cases where it’s difficult to get a large sample, detail. Bad for generalization, and there might be a bias in data collection, can’t determine cause and effect.)

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in natural environments without trying to manipulate and control the situation. (Good for 1st hand look and inspiration. Bad for chance of “demand characteristics” and different observers might reach different conclusions.)

Social desirability bias

People respond in ways they presume the researcher wishes.

Correlation

Statistical measure of a relationship between two factors, shows how well either factor/variable predicts the other (NOT cause and effect). Shown on a scatterplot.

Positive correlation

Increase/decrease together.

Negative correlation

Opposite direction

Correlation coefficient

Ranges from -1 to +1, measures the direction of the correlation and the strength (closer to 1/-1 stronger pos/neg correlation).

Illusory correlation

Perceiving a relationship where none exists.

Regression toward the mean

Tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

Directionality problem

Inability to tell which variable came first. (correlations)

Third Variable Problem

Possibility a third variable influences both variables. (correlations)

Experimentation

Research method in which a researcher manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect (dependent variables) on some behavior or mental processes.

Independent variable

The controlled or manipulated variable.

Dependent variable

The outcome that is measured.

Confounding variables

Any factor other than the independent variable that might influence the results of the study.

Experimental group

Group exposed to the independent variable.

Control Group

The comparison group that is not exposed to the independent variable.

Random assignment

Researchers randomly assign people to each group to minimize pre-existing differences between groups.

Single-Blind Procedure

The participants that are ignorant (blind) to whether or not they’ve received the independent variable. (accounts to subject bias)

Double-Blind Procedure

The research participants and data collectors don’t know who received the independent variable (accounts for experimenter bias/self-fulfilling prophecy).

Placebo effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect or behavior cause by the administration of an inert substance that the recipient assumes is an active agent. (Solution is use a placebo group [placebo method])

Validity

The extent to which an experiment measures or predict what it’s supposed to.

Ex Post Facto (Quasi-Experimental) Study

When the independent variable is naturally occurring or has already occurred and random assignment is impossible.

Quantitative Research

Deals with numbers, can be measured (commonly used with correlational studies and experiments, needs large sample, it’s objective).

Qualitative research

In-depth narrative data, commonly used in case studies, naturalistic observations, and unstructured interviews. Better for understanding complex behaviors, however it’s subjective.

Behavior Labs in experimenters’ intention

Simplified reality doesn’t intent to recreate exact behaviors, seek to test theoretical principles (less specific, more broad behaviors)

Informed Consent

Researchers must obtain this from participants, first providing them with enough information about a study to enable a decision. (Only for 18+)

Informed Assent

Requirement that minors get informed and agree, but legal guardians must also provide consent.

Nonmaleficence

Ethical principle of not causing harm to others. (Participants info must be kept confidential)

Debriefing

Researchers must explain the research afterward to the participants, including any deception that occurred.

Institutional Research Boards (IRB)

People who review and approve research proposals under ethical standards.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups.

Histogram (Bar Graph)

Depicts Frequency (how often scores occur).

Central Tendency

Describe what’s “typical” (Mean, median, mode)

Mean

Average (outlier might drastically change this)

Median

Middle (outlier can’t really change this)

Mode

Most frequently occurring (there can be none of these or multiple (bimodal distribution) in a distribution) [used in nominal data]

Percentile Rank

Percentage of scores that are less than a given score. (78th percentile = scored better than 78% of people)

Measures of Variation

Show how similar or diverse scores are. (Range, Standard Deviation)

Range

Difference between highest and lowest scores (negatively impacted by extremes).

Standard Deviation

Computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. (Better when gauges are packed together or dispersed)

Normal Curve (Bell curve)

Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes distribution of data. ( -1<SD> +1 = 68%, -2 < SD > +2 = 95%, -3 < SD > +3 = 99.7%)

Z-score

Tells us how typical a number is compared to other numbers in the data set. (Refers to how many SDs a particular data point is from the mean)

Positive Skew

Mean > Median

Negative Skew

Mean < Median

Inferential Statistics

Numerical data that allows one to generalize. (Gives the probability that sample data can be generalized to the population)

Statistical Significance

Statistical statement of how likely it is that a result (such as a difference between samples) occurred by chance. [Calculate p-value]

Effect Size

Strength of relationship between two variables

Replication crisis

Replications of many studies using the same methodology have failed, challenging the initial findings.

Meta-analysis

Studies that combine results of multiple studies.

Peer review

Before publications a process in which several other experts in the field read and recommend revisions to studies to ensure high quality publications.

Nature-nurture issue

To what extent do genes (nature) and experience (nurture) influence out psychological traits and behaviors?

Evolutionary Psychology

Seeks to examine how humans are alike due to their shared biology and evolutionary heritage. (Based on Charles Darwin theory of evolution)

Natural Selection

Traits contributing to better for survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Behavior Genetics

Study human differences and weigh the effects and interplay of heredity and environment.

Genome

Shared genetic profile that makes us humans.

Genetic Predisposition

Increased chance of developing a specific trait due to one’s genetic code.

Identical (monozygotic) twins

Form a single fertilized egg that splits into two. “Nature’s clones” (share same genes, not same number of each)

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

Form from separate eggs and only share about half of genes (same as any other sibling)

Gene Environment Interaction

Environments can trigger or block gene expression (Epigenetics studies)