AP Seminar Ultimate Review

Context

Surrounding info that helps someone understand an event, statement, or idea

Examples of context

circumstances, setting, conditions, surrounding, factors, situation, frame of reference, or background

Lenses

a filter through which an issue or topic is considered or examined

Examples of lenses

cultural and social, scientific, economic, political and historical, environmental, ethical, artistic and philosophical, and futuristic

Perspectives

distinct viewpoints that individuals or groups hold on to (influenced by backgrounds, experiences, roles, and interests, and can vary within the same lens)

Point of View

your feelings, stance, or opinion about a topic

Stakeholders

an individual, group, organization, or other that has an interest or concern in something (can either be directly or indirectly affected)

Reputation

(does the source’s history or status suggest reliability or unreliability?)

R

Ability to See

(is the source in a position to know what they’re talking about)

A

Vested Interest

(does the source of info have anything personally at stake?)

V

Expertise

(does the source have specialized knowledge and does the situation demand it?)

E

Neutrality

(is the source predisposed to support a particular point of view for reasons other than vested interest)

N

What is RAVEN?

the criteria of credibility for a source

Speaker (omniscient narrator, character, or actual author)

S1

Occasion (time and place, when and where)

O

Audience (primary, secondary, tertiary audience: who this was written for)

A

Purpose (message, meaning, why the author wrote this for the audience)

P

Subject (what is the topic about)

S2

Tone

how the author feels through word choice, organization, and rhetorical patterns

SOAPSTone

a 6-part analytical process used to effectively analyze rhetorical choices or organization of a written document

What is SOAPSTone used for?

Reading, writing, and planning texts

Toulmin

a framework developed by Stephen Toulmin that breaks arguments down into six interconnected components: Claim, Grounds, Warrant, Backing, Qualifier, Rebuttal

Strategies

Ethos (credibility)

Pathos (emotions)

Logos (logic)

Types

Past/Forensic

Present/Ceremonial

Future/Deliberative

Past/Forensic

Court decision

Investigative reports

Academic studies

Present/Ceremonial

Contemporary values

Inaugurations

Speeches

Future/Deliberative

Establish policies

White paper (info document by company or non-profit to promote)

Claim (Main Idea/Thesis)

Introductory paragraph, states primary argument, is always debatable

Grounds

Line of reasoning (directly addresses the claim with evidence, proof, and facts)

Warrant

Links grounds to the claim

Backing

additional support for the claim through an example or justification

Qualifier/counterclaim

a claim that goes against the author’s opinion, the opposition stance

Rebuttal

response to counterclaim with evidence that disputes opposition

What is an example of a claim

What is an example of grounds

What is an example of a warrant

What is an example of a backing

Stay small, keep evidence at:

5-15 words

I should quote full sentences

False

I should cut parts of the quote that don’t directly select the claim

True

How do you embed a quote?

1. Smith states, “Students struggle with media

   literacy” (Smith 4).

2. Smith argues that students’ difficulty stems from

   “limited exposure to critical media analysis” (4).

2

How long should commentary on the quote be?

As long as the quote

I should state how my quote supports my claim directly

False

Relationship

Put sources in conversation with each other

Agreement: This aligns with Johnson’s claim that ...

Extension: While Smith focuses on __, Lee expands this idea by

showing…

Complication: However, Garcia complicates this argument by

suggesting…

Qualification: Although Brown acknowledges __, she cautions that…

Return

return to your voice to end the paragraph and clarify your position (eg. together, these sources suggest)

Citation for one author

Citation for two authors

Multiple authors

No author citation

(Shortened Title 200).

No page citation

(Smith).

Media is meant to be:

unbiased (allows viewers to make their own decisions)

Unbiased media is

objective

Biased media is

subjective

Direct bias

person/organization directly states opinion (eg. we should forgive student loads)

Indirect bias

doesn’t directly say what is thought, but uses hidden tactics to convince you

Indirectly bias tactics

purposefully providing inaccurate info, leaving out important info, or not including info from sources on the “other side”

Which indirect bias uses negative language and which one uses positive language?

1. Before departing from the White House early Monday, President Bush stole a page from his predecessors and suggested he feels American consumer’s pain

2. As President Bush prepared to depart from the White House Monday, he agreed with his predecessors about the many struggles of American consumers

1. Negative - uses words like “stole” and “suggests”

2. Positive - respectful wording

Which are biased/unbiased? Why?

1. Obama said the he feels American consumer’s pain

2. Obama alleged that he feels American consumer’s pain

3. Obama complained that he feels American consumer’s pain

4. Obama claimed that he felt consumer’s pain

1 - unbiased

2, 3, 4 - biased (“alleged” and “claimed” imply assertion without proof and “complained” is an assumption)

“A new baseball stadium in Las Vegas will allow Sin

City to add yet another professional league team to

their arsenal, and bring in millions of dollars in

revenue for the city. Sports has brought a new sense

of community to the city.”

1. This evidence that wasn’t included is an example of what in bias?

“The new stadium will cost about $1.5 billion, and

will be paid, in part, by Clark County taxpayers over

the next biennium.”

Leaving out information

For sources to be unbiased, they must

include multiple perspectives to get an accurate idea of the issue

Why does bias exist

Because we’re human and we naturally have opinions, beliefs, and therefore, biases

Q

question and explore (research question, what you want to know and how to answer it)

U

understand and analyze (comprehend author’s main idea, claims, and biases)

E

evaluate multiple perspectives (counterargument, consider individual perspectives and broader more varied perspectives)

S

synthesize ideas (combine knowledge, ideas, and your own perspectives)

T

team, transform, and transmit (communication and connect with audience)

ad hominem fallacy

discrediting an argument by personally attacking the speaker with something irrelevant.

anecdotal fallacy

when someone uses a personal experience or an isolated example to come to a broad conclusion that usually dismisses larger statistics and evidence

appeal of hypocrisy (tu quoque)

when an argument is discredited based on the hypocrisy of the person making it, rather than the argument itself

appeal to authority (argumentum ad veracundiam)

when someone claims that a statement is true simply because an authority figure believes it, rather than providing evidence

appeal to ignorance (argumentum ad ignorantiam)

a claim is simply true because it has not been proven false and vice versa

appeal to nature

asserting that anything natural is good and anything unnatural is bad

appeal to pity (

Bandwagon fallacy

claims an argument or belief must be true or valid simply because it is popular

Burden of proof

someone makes a claim and incorrectly demands that their opponent discredits it

casual fallacy (false cause)

assuming that because two events occur together, one caused the other

circular argument (petito principal)

instead of proving a claim, the argument loops back to where it started, making it incoherent

composition/division

assuming what is true about parts of a whole must also be true about the whole itself and vice versa (generalization)

equivocation (ambiguity)

logical error when an ambiguous word or phrase is used in multiple senses within the same argument

fallacy fallacy

if an argument contains a logical fallacy, it must be false

fallacy of sunk costs

bias where people continue an endeavor simply because they already invested time, money, or effort into it

false dilemma

an issue presents itself as only having two possible solutions when many are available

gambler’s fallacy

If an independent random event happens more frequently than usual, it is due to happen less in the future and vice versa

genetic fallacy

claim is dismissed or validated because of its origin

hasty generalization

broad conclusion from a small, unrepresentative sample or anecdote

loaded question

embeds an unproven, controversial assumption into a question

middle ground

assuming the middle ground between two opposing views must always be correct

no true scotsman

an attempt to protect an oversimplified generalization by redefining the criteria of the group instead of admitting fault

personal incredulity

rejection of a claim simply because the opponent can’t believe it’s true

red herring (ignoratio elenchi)

irrelevant information to distract the audience from the main issue, successfully changing the topic

slippery slope fallacy

assuming a small step will lead to a chain of related events (usually negative) and ultimately lead to an extreme outcome

special pleading fallacy

when someone applies a general rule for other with an unfair exception for themselves

straw man fallacy

someone distorts, exaggerates, or misrepresent an opponents argument

Texas sharpshooter

when someone spots a pattern in random data after a fact and frames it as a meaningful prediction or proof