week 14 posc 2401

budget deficit

The shortfall when a government spends more than it takes in during a given a fiscal year.

budget surplus

The amount that remains when a government takes in more revenue than it spends in a fiscal year.

central bank

A governmental entity that controls the supply of a country’s money and affects interest rates in the country through changes to the rate it charges private banks.

citizenship policy

Rules that establish how to become a citizen, the rights and duties of citizens, and the conditions under which dual citizenship is allowed.

comparative public policy

A subfield of comparative politics that examines the causes and consequences of policy decisions.

conditionality

The creation and enforcement of standards for IGO membership.

development policy

The set of programs and activities designed to encourage economic development in a country.

domestic policy

The set of government approaches designed to improve economic, social, and political conditions within a country.

education policy

Government involvement in education, from running a publicly funded education system to overseeing student performance and providing partial support for the cost of private schools and institutions of higher learning.

first order policy change

Policy modification in which the details of the policy change, but the general approach of the policy remains the same.

fiscal policy

Government decisions affecting taxing and spending.

flat tax

A form of income tax in which individuals pay the same percentage of income in tax regardless of their level of income.

foreign policy

The set of approaches to foreign relations, national security, and defense.

government debt

The sum of annual budget deficits over time; also known as the public debt.

health care policy

Government programs designed to enhance health care coverage, either through a national health care system or full or partial payment of health care costs.

immigration policy

Government rules governing how individuals can enter a country and how long they are allowed to stay.

inner-directed linkage

when external factors influence domestic policy

intergovernmental organizations (IGOs)

Political organizations whose members are internationally recognized states.

moderates

Members of the opposition in a nondemocratic system who support cooperating with the government to encourage liberalization and democratization.

monetary policy

Government controls over the supply of money circulating in the economy and the interest rates charged when lending that money.

nationalization

A process in which the government takes over existing private companies or develops its own companies, which are often given monopoly status.

nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)

Political organizations whose members are individuals and/or groups.

outer-directed linkage

when domestic factors influence foreign policy

pact

A negotiated agreement during democratization that often establishes the institutional arrangements of the new democracy as well as specific policy approaches to be adhered to by the democratic government.

policy convergence

The spread of policies from one country to another over time, with the result that policies become similar globally or in a particular region.

policy diffusion

Another term for the spread of a policy approach from one country to another over time.

policy environment

The set of internal structural factors that influence policy outcomes.

privatization

A process in which government-owned enterprises are sold to the general public or to foreign investors.

progressive tax

A form of income tax in which the percentage of income paid in taxes increases as one’s level of income increases.

public administration

A subfield of political science that studies the inner working of government institutions that produce public policy.

public policy

An output of a political system designed to alter some aspect of political, economic, or social conditions.

quota

A limit on the number or value of a certain product that can be imported.

redistributive policies

Policies aimed at reducing poverty by making the wealth in a particular society less unequal.

regulatory policy

A set of rules that places restrictions on the activities of individuals or groups.

second order policy change

Policy modification in which a policy’s underlying goals are unchanged, but significant changes are implemented in how the goal is pursued.

subsidy

A government disbursement to a company that allows the company to sell its products for less, both domestically and abroad.

tariff

A tax on an imported good or service, paid by the entity importing it into a country and not by the entity exporting it to that country.

tax credit

A reduction in the tax an individual owes on income subject to tax.

tax deduction

A reduction in the amount of an individual’s income subject to tax.

third order policy change

Policy modification in which the goals behind a policy are dramatically altered.

trade policy

Government regulation of the import of products produced outside the country as well as products produced within that country for export.

unemployment policy

Government programs to assist the unemployed, including economic assistance and job training.

tic on uk

changes in the British economy that have increased anxiety among British citizens; migration taps into perceived threats to British identity and culture; the 7/7 terrorist bombings in 2005 brought a culture shift on migration; Brexit decision increased migration into UK rather than decreasing it as was expected; higher numbers of migrants added to existing fears

tic on germany

consistent with Inglehart’s theory of post-materialist value development, the economic boom and development of the social market economy (SME) approach after WWII opened door for growing environmentalism; economic structure of energy dependence; internal leadership (chancellor from CDU or SDU) also matters; External factors include Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine

tic on india

India’s developing country status led to a focus on economic growth; internal choice factors included the decades-earlier decision for capitalist economic liberalization; Modi has played a central role in more recent development policies, including emphasizing both the importance of technology and the need to address the problems of general and digital inequality

tic on mexico

Internal choice factors include Calderón’s leadership and his, and other presidents’, decision to use the military; corruption was a major factor as well, as the military was seen as less corrupt than other security/ police options; external pressure from the U.S. to slow drug trafficking

tic on brazil

given the nature of the problem, internal economic and identity structures have played an important role in disputes over protecting the Amazon; decision-making regarding the Amazon is a classic example of the collective action problem, with benefits spread out costs targeted

tic on nigeria

internal structures include oildominated economy and “resource curse” effects; anti-poverty efforts affected by deep levels of corruption within existing internal economic, social, and political structures; internal leadership and decision-making including Tinubu’s decision to end fuel subsidies

tic on russia

economic conditions in 1990s drove need to address poverty; existence of profitable natural resources leads government to focus on the energy sector under Putin; development of corruption under Putin (“kleptocracy’) meant fewer resources for social spending; internal leadership and decision making, including Putin’s decision to invade Ukraine, were crucial

tic on china

Internal economic structures include the features of economy, including persistent youth unemployment in the 2020s; concern by government about unhappy younger workers leads to mix of repression and new policies; external factors led China to focus on export- driven manufacturing but tariff war with U.S. in 2025 led Xi to rethink approach

tic on iran

Internal structural factors include culture and ideology, identity structure, and political structures that empower hardliners; choice factors include the person who becomes president—with moderates being less restrictive on gender— but protests have also changed calculations at times; external pressure from IGOs and INGOs