lab practical 2

basophil

-play a key part in allergic reactions by releasing histamine when allergens bind to antibodies ont he surface. they also release cytokines that activate other immune cells, linking adaptive and innate immunity

-originate in bone marrow from hematopoetic stem cells

monocyte

• they can differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells to engulf and destroy pathogens

• initiate the inflammatory and anti-inflammatory processes

• originate in bone marrow from monoblasts

lymphocyte

-produce antibodies that neutralize pathogens

T lymphocytes stimulate differentiation of B-cells into antibody- producing cells, kill infected cells and cancerous cells, and control and suppress immune responses

eosinophil

-defend against parasite infections by using enzymes and toxic proteins, modulate allergic reactions and help with tissue repair by secreting growth factors

-originate in the bone marrow from multipotent progenitor cells

neutrophils

-the first line of defense in the immune system

-can phagocytize foreign invaders, release granules that can kill pathogens, and form NETs that capture and kill microbes

-originate in the bone marrow from hemotopoietic stem cells

role innate immune system would play in response to an abraison, beginning with initial wound

upon wound the innate immune system acts as the immediate, non-specific first responder to protect against infection and initiate repair

the process by which the adaptive immune system defends the body against viruses

using specialized lymphocytes to target specific viral antigens. plasma cells create antibodies, plasma cells are made by B cells. involves cytotoxic T cells and helper T cells

counting for RBC

count the number of red blood cells in the four corners and middle of the center

counting for WBC

count the number of white blood cells in the four corners

counting cells

count the cells that are touching the left and top boundry, omit the cells that are touching the bottom and right side boundaries

calculating average cell number

multiply average cell number by the dilution factor

size of individual square

0.25 mm

size of larger four corner square

1 mm

multiplication factor

= (number of cells from 5 squares) x (5) x (500 dilution factor) x (10)

what is anemia

a condition where there is a lack of healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin in the blood. hemoglobin is a protein in the RBC that carries oxygen throughout the body. WIthout sufficient healthy RBCs or hemoglobin the body is unable to get enough oxygen

who won american idol in 2011

Scotty McCreery

what is it called when the body can respond to all physical stresses

homeostasis

what is the process to create white blood cells

Leukopoiesis

what is the hormone produced by the adrenal gland

adrenalin

what does systolic blood pressure represent?

the highest pressure in the artery, produced by the hearts contraction (systolic) phase, normal=120 mmHg

what does diastolic blood pressure represent?

the lowest pressure in the artery, produced during the hearts relaxation (diastolic) phase, normal= 80 mmHg

a patient has a BP reading of 170/110-, how can you explain the inability to obtain a third reading

the buildup of fatty deposits along the artery walls, making it hard to read the blood pressure. Creating constant noise, the Korotkoff sounds cant be detected. The artery will not open/ close properly, so blood flow with not be fully functioning.

normal components of an EKG

p wave, QRS complex, T wave

p wave

represents the spread of electrical activity ( wave of negativity) over the atria after initial depolarization of the SA node

QRS complex

the spread of negativity wave (depolarization) through the ventricular masculature. A small amount of atrial repolarization also occurs at the same time

T wave

represents the repolarization of the ventricular musculature. it is of longer duration and lower amplitude than the depolarization wave (QRS complex), which indicates that the ventricular repolarization process is less syncronized and slower than the depolarization process

how do the walls of the atria compare to the walls of the ventricles? why are they different?

the atrium walls are thinner than the ventricles and experience lower pressure. The ventricles have thicker walls because they pump blood out of the heart, generating much higher pressure.

Residual volume (RV)

The volume of air remaining in the lungs after a maximum, forced exhalation

expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

The maximal volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal, quiet expiration

Tidal volume

the volume of air inhaled or exhaled during a single, normal respiratory cycle at rest

pure water is ______ to blood

hypotonic

water has a much lower concentration of solutes, water will move into the blood cells through osmosis, causing them to swell

gatorade is ______ to blood

isotonic

gatorade has a similar concentration of carbs and electrolytes, it is designed to be isotonic so that it can hydrate and replenish energy during exercise, cell remains normal

salt water is _____ to blood

hypertonic

it has a higher concentration of salt (solutes) than blood, water moves out of the blood cells through osmosis, causing them to shrink

hypermetropia

long- sightedness, far objects are clear, close objects are blurry

myopia

near sightedness, distant objects are blurry, close objects are clear

presbyopia

gradual loss of the eye's ability to focus on close objects

zonulues

attach lens to cilary muscle

lens

blends light to focus it on the retina

optic disk

region where optic nerve and blood vessels leave the eye

central retinal artery and vein

emerge from center of optic disk

fovea

region of sharpest vision

retina

layer that contains photoreceptors

sclera

connective tissues

ciliary muscle

contraction alters the curvature of the lens

pupil

changes the amount of light entering in the eye

tapetum lucidum

a reflective tissue layer located behind the retina in the eyes of many vertebrates, acting as a "mirror" to reflect light back through the retina

why do near points become longer with increasing age

the lens in the eye loses the flexibility required to adjust its focus on close objects.

what causes the blind spot in the visual field

there are no cones for visual reception in the blind spot area, the optic disk lacks photoreceptors

what does a 20/20 vision rating mean

the ability to see an object clearly from 20 feet away what a normal person can see 20 feet away.

where is the blind spot located in relation to fovea

15 degrees on nasal side of fovea

explain the physiological mechanism that produces these after image colors

after image colors are produced by retinal fatigue of photoreceptor cones after prolonged stimulation by a specific color, followed by an opponent process in the visual system

what happens to respiratory rhythm following hyperventilation

the respiratory system slows down, becomes shallower or temporarily ceases altogether

transport of materials across membranes occurs by several processes in the kidney, give one example of each transport process

filtration- in the golmerulus and bowmans capsule

example- glomerulus acts as a filter, allowing water, electrolytes and urea to pass into the nephron while blocking proteins and blood cells

two symptoms present in diabetes millitus are hyperglycemia and diuresis. what causes this increased urine output?

diabetes millitus is caused by insulin resistance. cells begin to not respond normally to insulin signaling which results in less glucose removed by the cells for glycolysis, increasing blood glucose in the body

the kidneys can only resorb a set amount of glucose from the blood, so in the case of hyperglycemia caused by diabetes militus, glucose has to be extreted in the urine. This increases the osmolarity of the urine, causing less water to be reabsorbed, which leads to more water being excreted increasing urine production

what is respiratory rate

the number of breaths a person takes per minute, usually measured at rest by counting how many times the chest rises. It is a key vital sign used to assess overall health

hyperventiation

rapid, deep breathing—often called overbreathing—that causes excessive loss of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the blood

explain the difference in a persons respiratory movements when hyperventilation takes place in and out of a paper bag

Hyperventilating into a paper bag forces the person to re-inhale carbon dioxide (CO2) rich air, slowing the rapid, shallow breathing cycle and raising blood levels to counteract lightheadedness. Without the bag, hyperventilation causes excessive loss, causing continued rapid breathing, vasoconstriction, and potential fainting

what is pulmonary fibrosis

a chronic, progressive lung disease where tissue deep in the lungs becomes scarred, thick, and stiff, making it difficult to breathe and transfer oxygen into the bloodstream

what happens to the respiratory system with pulmonary fibrosis

causes progressive scarring and thickening of lung tissue, reducing lung elasticity and making them stiff. This damage impairs the lungs' ability to expand, reducing vital capacity, and hinders oxygen transfer into the bloodstream.

what is hypertension

is a chronic condition where the force of blood against artery walls is consistently too high

hypertension blood pressure

140/90 or higher caused by unhealthy diet, physical inactivity, genetics, age, secan older

an older patient comes in complaining about a lack of vision near sidedly, what would be your diagnosis and why does this happen

presbyopia

conjunctiva

covers the cornea with a thin layer of epithelium

fovea centralis

contains only the cones and provides the best focus of an image

active transport

occurs in proximal convoluted tubules, moves substances against concentration gradients to reabsorb nutrients or excrete waste, primarily using ATP

osmosis

in the collecting duct, which reabsorbs water from filtrate into interstitial fluid

diffusion

occurs primarily within the nephron—specifically the glomerulus and renal tubules—where passive movement of solutes (like urea) and water occurs along concentration gradients. Examples include the diffusion of water/solutes out of glomerular capillaries and the passive reabsorption of urea from tubules

lysed cells

cells whose outer membranes have been broken down or destroyed (oncolysis) to release internal materials like protein, DNA, or RNA

non lysed cells

intact, living, or functional cells that have not been broken open (lysed) by mechanical, chemical, or biological means

what is a heart murmur and what causes it

an extra sound during a heart beat, caused by turbulent blood flow in the heart

MAP=

DP+1/3(SP-DP)

pulse pressure

the difference between the systolic and diastolic pressures, normal =40mmHg

mean blood pressure

diastolic pressure plus one third of the pulse pressure, the average effective pressure forcing blood through the circulatory system,. normal =90-100 mmHg

what produces the systolic korotkoff sound

the turbulent flow of blood and rapid vibrations of the arterial wall as it snaps open

why does the sound disappear at the end of a measurement (phase 4)

the pressure in the blood pressure cuff has dropped below diastolic pressure

if your TPR=1, what is your CO in the sitting position

93 mmHg

BP= 120/80 MAP=CO*TPR

MAP= 80 + 1/3(120-80) = 93 mmHG

explain the physiological mechanism operating in the cold pressure test

it acts as a physical stressor, triggering a rapid sympathetic nervous system discharge

interventricular septum

thick muscular wall seperates the right and left ventricles