Reading Assignments #3

What was the goal of the study by Kagan & Snidman (1991)?

To examine how infants reacted to novel situations and whether early reactivity predicted later fearfulness.

How many infants participated in the study by Kagan & Snidman (1991)?

94 infants.

What ages were studied by Kagan & Snidman (1991)?

From 4 months to 14 months.

How were infants categorized in the study by Kagan & Snidman (1991)?

Into four groups based on motor activity and crying.

Which two groups showed the clearest differences in fearfulness according to Kagan & Snidman (1991)?

The High motor-High cry group and the Low motor-Low cry group.

At what ages were significant group differences in fear scores found according to Kagan & Snidman (1991)?

At 9 months and 14 months.

How many infants were in the High motor-High cry group according to Kagan & Snidman (1991)?

22 infants.

How many infants were in the Low motor-Low cry group according to Kagan & Snidman (1991)?

35 infants.

How many infants in the High motor-High cry group showed low fear at both ages according to Kagan & Snidman (1991)?

None.

How many infants in the Low motor-Low cry group showed low fear at both ages according to Kagan & Snidman (1991)?

14 infants.

What did the findings suggest about temperament according to Kagan & Snidman (1991)?

Some children begin life with a predisposition to develop different temperaments in specific environments.

What was the goal of the study by Tottenham et al. (2010)?

To examine the long-term effects of early adversity, particularly orphanage rearing.

What groups were compared in the study by Tottenham et al. (2010)?

Previously institutionalized children and children who had never been institutionalized.

How were previously institutionalized children divided according to Tottenham et al. (2010)?

Into early-adopted and late-adopted groups.

What did the researchers predict about orphanage exposure and amygdala volume according to Tottenham et al. (2010)?

Longer orphanage exposure would be associated with larger amygdala volume.

What did the researchers predict about emotional regulation according to Tottenham et al. (2010)?

Longer orphanage exposure would be associated with greater difficulty regulating behavior in emotional situations.

What did the researchers predict about anxiety according to Tottenham et al. (2010)?

Larger amygdala volume would be related to higher anxiety.

What task was used to study emotional regulation in the study by Tottenham et al. (2010)?

An emotional go/no-go task.

What were participants asked to do in the emotional go/no-go task according to Tottenham et al. (2010)?

Detect target faces while ignoring distractor faces.

What two behavioral measures were examined in the study by Tottenham et al. (2010)?

Reaction time and accuracy.

Which group had the largest adjusted amygdala volumes according to Tottenham et al. (2010)?

The later-adopted previously institutionalized children.

How did the early-adopted group compare to the comparison group in amygdala volume according to Tottenham et al. (2010)?

They did not differ significantly.

What relationship was found between age of adoption and amygdala volume according to Tottenham et al. (2010)?

Amygdala volume increased as age of adoption increased.

How did negative faces affect reaction time according to Tottenham et al. (2010)?

Reaction times were slower for negative faces than positive faces.

When were reaction times fastest according to Tottenham et al. (2010)?

When positive faces were the target stimuli.

How did previously institutionalized children differ from comparison children on reaction times according to Tottenham et al. (2010)?

They were more affected by face valence and stimulus type.

Which children made the most errors during trials with negatively valenced faces according to Tottenham et al. (2010)?

Children who spent the longest time in orphanage care.

What overall conclusion was supported by the findings in the study by Tottenham et al. (2010)?

Longer institutionalization was associated with larger amygdala volume and greater difficulty processing emotional information.

What was the goal of the study by Johnson et al. (2004)?

To investigate infants' internal working models of attachment.

What is an internal working model according to Johnson et al. (2004)?

Expectations about how people behave based on experiences with caregivers.

What age were the infants studied in the research by Johnson et al. (2004)?

12- to 16-month-old infants.

What attachment groups were included in the study by Johnson et al. (2004)?

Securely attached and insecurely attached infants.

What method was used in the study by Johnson et al. (2004)?

A visual habituation procedure using animated ellipses.

What did the large ellipse represent according to Johnson et al. (2004)?

The mother.

What did the small ellipse represent according to Johnson et al. (2004)?

The child.

What happened after the mother stopped halfway up the incline in the study by Johnson et al. (2004)?

The child began to cry.

What happened in the unresponsive caregiver outcome according to Johnson et al. (2004)?

The mother continued up the slope away from the child.

What happened in the responsive caregiver outcome according to Johnson et al. (2004)?

The mother returned to the child.

What did the researchers measure in the study by Johnson et al. (2004)?

Looking time.

What did researchers predict secure infants would find unexpected according to Johnson et al. (2004)?

An unresponsive caregiver.

What did researchers predict secure infants would find expected according to Johnson et al. (2004)?

A responsive caregiver.

How did secure infants respond to the outcomes according to Johnson et al. (2004)?

They looked longer at the unresponsive outcome.

What do the results suggest about attachment experiences according to Johnson et al. (2004)?

They are reflected in infants' abstract mental representations of social interactions.

What was the goal of the study by Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

To examine helping behavior in human infants and chimpanzees.

How many infants participated in the study by Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

24 infants.

How old were the infants in the study by Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

18 months old.

How many chimpanzees participated in the study by Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

Three chimpanzees.

What two conditions were infants assigned to in the study by Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

Experimental and control conditions.

How many helping situations were used in the study by Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

Ten situations.

What was true in all ten situations according to Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

An adult was having trouble achieving a goal.

What were the four categories of helping situations in the study by Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

Out-of-reach objects, physical obstacles, wrong results, and wrong means.

What happened in the Clothespin Task according to Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

An adult dropped a clothespin and unsuccessfully reached for it.

What happened in the Cabinet Task according to Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

An adult wanted to put magazines in a cabinet but the doors were closed.

What happened in the Lid Task according to Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

The experimenter dropped a lid and reached for it.

What happened in the Mould Task according to Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

The experimenter was collecting objects that were out of reach.

How many infants helped in at least one task according to Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

22 of the 24 infants.

Did chimpanzees show helping behavior according to Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

Yes.

How did infant helping compare to chimpanzee helping in the study by Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

Infants helped more often and across more tasks.

What type of tasks did chimpanzees help with according to Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

Mainly out-of-reach object tasks.

What do the findings suggest about helping behavior according to Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?

Both infants and chimpanzees can help others, but human infants help more often and across a wider variety of situations.