History a level, Stuart Britain, Charles II (1660-1685)

Why Monarchy would be weaker

-Significance of Civil wars and Charles I's regicide.

-Parliament are stronger and had been asserting their rights more.

-The Army were divided.

-Charles II's father is Charles I - Could be vengeful.

-Monarch were no longer 'divine' - Charles I's execution proved that monarchs are mortal and bleed red blood.

-Political and religious divisions in the country.

Why Monarchy would be stronger

-The political nation had asked for the Restoration.

-England was a larger, more powerful state.

-The Navy was x3 larger in 1662 than in 1649.

-Was a standing army, and the Restoration was supported by Monck - Commander-in-Chief.

-More efficient Tax System.

-Taxes based on imports and exports rather than feudal impositions.

1660-67

-Saw the two-part Restoration settlement (1660-61 and 1661-65).

-Politics was dominated by the Earl of Clarendon as Lord Chancellor.

-Most peaceful section of Charles II's reign.

Charles II's background and character

-Spent the interregnum in France.

-Tall, athletically built and enthusiastically pursued a variety of Sports.

-He was a party boy , however he was prepared to channel his energies into activities of the government.

-Indulged in many mistresses.

-Known as the 'merry monarch'

Was England finally 'healed and settled'?

-A hereditary monarchy, the House of Lords and an established church of England.

-The kingdom went back to pre-1649 and tried to erase Civil wars and the Interregnum.

-The people were pleased as they found that it was even harder to rule without a hereditary monarch as that was the only way that they knew how.

When did the Interregnum finally collapse?

When General Monck invited all those excluded by Pride's purge to return to parliament.

When was the Convention parliament assembled?

25th April 1660

Composition of the Convention parliament

-Only English constituencies were represented in the Convention parliament (unlike the Protectorate parliaments).

-Balanced evenly between independents, Presbyterians and traditional supporters of the Church of England.

Reasons to fear Charles II

-Son of Charles I - he may seek revenge.

-Close supporters of Cromwell were worried (especially religious radicals) as they may feasibly have feared vengeful Royalists.

-Those who had purchased the properties which Royalists had sold at knock-down prices would fear their loss of land that they have gained.

-He had spent time with Louis XVI - feared he developed Catholic and absolutists tendencies.

The Declaration of Breda (1st May 1660)

- A document issued by the exiled King Charles II in Breda, the Netherlands, making certain promises in return for his restoration to the English throne, following the end of the Protectorate government.

-Charles moved to Breda in the Netherlands (this distanced him from accusations of Catholicism and Absolutism).

What was the significance of the Declaration?

-All the things promised: No harsh punishments of the parliamentarians and Cromwellians, a parliament, religious tolerance were SINCERELY pursued by Charles.

'Liberty of tender consciences'

Charles was keen to win over his enemies, so using Cromwellian terminology was clever to emphasise 'Healing and settling'.

Consequences of the Declaration

-This indicated that religious toleration would continue.

-However, in contrast to the generosity shown to his opponents, he neglected his most loyal supporters.

When was Charles crowned King?

8th May 1660.

Act of Indemnity and Oblivion (29th Aug 1660)

Forgave and pardoned people for their past actions during the civil war and the Interregnum besides the actions of Regicides, meant that legally the Interregnum would be forgotten, only 50 individuals were to not be pardoned,

The Restoration

Many settlements were made in the Restoration:

-Clarendon Code

-Constitutional settlement

-Church of England restored

-Financial settlement

-Land settlement

Edward Hyde - Earl of Clarendon

-Served as Charles II's chief advisor and Lord Chancellor until 1667.

-Had been a supported of Pym in the Long Parliament but had broken from him over the Grand Remonstrance.

-Had escaped with Charles following defeat to Cromwell in 1651.

-Authored the Declaration of Breda - paved the way for Charles return to England.

-Created the 1st Earl of Clarendon in April 1660.

-His sister - Anne Hyde - was pregnant and has secretly married James Duke of York in Sept 1660

Venner Rising 1661

-Fifth monarchist, Thomas Venner, led about 50 armed Fifth monarchist men, Baptist and quakers in a break-in at St Paul's Cathedral.

-They appealed to Republicans who wanted to unite against the tyranny of Charles Stuart.

-The rising was crushed reasonably comfortably but it had a big impact on the political atmosphere of England.

-The rising had little effect as people were sick of the Fifth monarchists.

March-April 1661: Electoral campaign

-The Venner Rising was confirmation for many that England was politically unstable and needed a strong monarchy to oppose radicalism.

The Cavalier parliament (May 1661- Jan 1679)

-Known as the Cavalier parliament because of the predominance of Royalist and Anglican MPs.

-Sat for a total of 17 sessions.

-Their first act was to confirm all legislation passed by the convention parliament during the previous year.

Militia act (1661)

Confirmed that the monarch, as head of state, was the Commander of the army and navy.

Bishops exclusion act of 1641 repealed (1661)

Allowed Anglican bishops to take their seats in the House of Lords.

Modification of the 1641 Triennial act (1664)

It was no longer possible to force the parliament every 3 years, they had to rely on his good faith that he would do it once every 3 years.

Prerogative courts were banned

Prerogative courts, like the Court of Castle Chamber and Star Chamber were not coming back.

Licensing act (1662)

Reintroduced and formalised censorship.

Militia act (1662)

Granted Charles II the right to raise £70,000 a year for 3 years through a militia rate to support the armed forces.

Act of the Safety and Preservation of his Majesty's Person and Government

Made it punishable to accuse the king of trying to bring in popery to indict the monarch

Problems over finance (1662)

The crown remained dependent on parliament for revenue, but it was found that the annual sum granted by the convention (£1.2mil) was insufficient to meet Charles' expenses.

Wealth tax imposition (1662)

-A supplemental tax granted by parliament to Charles to max up the shortfall.

-This caused great resentment because the the collectors and constables were given authority to enter households to inspect the number of heaths for taxation.

MP were becoming critical of Charles' extravagance

MPs were dissatisfied by Charles' lavish lifestyle, and over time became increasingly reluctant to give him further grants.

Sold Port Dunkirk to Louis XIV (1662)

-In a hugely unpopular move, Chalres sold Port Dunkirk to Louis XIV for £375,000.

-This could be because Charles wanted to reach a state where he could be self-sufficient without the need for parliament, undermining their role completely.

What led to the division between town and country?

The vicious persecution of religious radicals due to the harsh religious settlement imposed by the Cavalier parliament.

What did Charles want in terms of religion?

-He wanted religious toleration - 'Liberty of tender consciences'.

-He and Clarendon wanted a restored Church of England.

Differences over religion in the Cavalier parliament

-Although there were a number of Presbyterian MPs and Lords, the cavalier parliament was dominated by traditionalist supporters of the Church of England.

-They wanted a narrow Church of England - which excluded Presbyterians and dissenters.

-They also wanted the sects which have emerged since the 1640s persecuted. - Feared episcopacy + common prayer book.

Why was Charles keen for religious toleration?

-He was genuinely 'tolerant'.

-He didn't think Royal power should be dependent upon everyone conforming absolutely to religion.

-Potentially a 'crypto-catholic' and thus toleration would increase Catholic influence.

Worcester House Declaration (Oct 1660)

- Charles' intends for a religious settlement.

- SINGLE Protestant Church against Popery.

- No persecution of dissenters and independent sects.

- Greater toleration (esp. due to Catholic sympathies).

Savoy House Conference (1661)

Failed for 2 principal reasons:

-The inflexibility of the Presbyterian negotiators, who disliked Charles' plans of toleration and wanted to impose their design on Anglicans.

-Inexorable pressure from the Anglican Gentry who for short-term purposes, found themselves in a dominant position in parliament in 1661.

Outcome of the Savoy House Conference

-The outcome was a disaster for the King's prospect of a stable settlement.

-Bishops were reinstated in the House of Lords and 1000 Presbyterians were removed.

-1/4 of the clergy were thrown into 'mental dissent - they went along with the prayers but they did not mean any of it.

The Clarendon Code (1661)

Series of laws by Parliament that excluded Catholics and Presbyterians from religious and political life.

These included:

-Corporation act (1661)

-Act of uniformity (1662)

-The Northern rising (1663)

-Conventicle act (1664)

-Five mile act (1665)

Corporation Act (1661)

Restricted the membership of the governing body of the towns to those who accepted Anglican dogma and disciplines.

Act of uniformity (1662)

Expelled around 2000 clergymen from their livings who would not declare the prayer book

Declaration of Indulgence (1662)

Restored all penal laws against Catholic dissenters.

The Northern Rising (1663)

In 1663 there was the 'Northern plot' involving a mixture of religious radicals and Republicans. Around 50 men gathered across Yorkshire, with plans to coordinate with rebels from Ireland and Scotland. However, the lack of immediate success against the state's forces prevented any coordination among the rebels. Although the Northern Rising was more limited than it first appeared, Charles exaggerated the extent of the threat to rally support for his unpopular rule.

Led to the conventicle act (1664).

Conventicle Act (1664)

-Forbode worship conducted outside the Church of England in meetings of 5 or more - expired in 1668.

-Imposed heavy penalties for attending non-Anglican services.

Five Mile Act (1665)

-Caused by the second Anglo-Dutch war.

-Prevented expelled ministers from coming within 5 miles of any town, thereby cutting them off from their congregations.

Effects of the Clarendon Code

-Made dissenters less likely to be militant.

-Made laws on the church more rigid.

-Effectively ended any possibility of the Anglican Church and Nonconformists coming together under one religious and social banner.

-Effectively backtracked completely on the Declaration of Breda.

The Quaker Act (1662)

Outlined harsh punishments for the quakers, who said they would not take up arms against the government.

Consequences of the Anglican triumph

-Presbyterianism was wiped out completely in the space of a few years - it was an organised national church or nothing.

-The Independents suffered and went completely underground.

The Clarendon Code misfired badly

-It did not so much as destroy religious dissent as it drove it completely underground.

-It pleased the Royalist and Anglican membership of the cavalier parliament.

-Pursuing religious toleration ran risks.

-Clarendon was scapegoated.

Charles II was politically adept

-He selected his battles carefully.

-He knew he couldn't hope to win this one - there was just too much ill-feeling towards dissenters.

-Because he always needed finance, he had to find a way to work with parliament.

-This example provides evidence of Charles' political skill as he could gauge when to back down to avoid an escalation of tensions.

Why did mistresses cause political unrest?

-Finance

-Catholicism

-Neglect towards government duties.

Mistresses are expensive

-Charles was financially extravagant.

-He had 14 illegitimate children that needed to be paid for.

-His extravagance and dissolute living made it increasingly hard for ministers to persuade MPs to grant Charles more money - especially as many MPs were hard-lined Anglicans who objected to his behaviour on moral grounds.

Mistresses caused religious discontent

-Many of Charles' mistresses were Catholic.

-James Duke of York was Catholic.

-The prominence of Catholics in high places inevitably created the impression of popery across the political nation.

What period was 1660-67 known as?

The 'honeymoon period' of the restoration settlement.

When was the first Anglo-Dutch war?

1652-1654

Summary of Anglo-Dutch wars

-Mainly fought at sea.

-The first finished in stalemate but boosted the protectorates reputation.

-The second was a disaster.

-The third was the most problematic and the cause of a major crisis because it was fought in alliance with the French.

The second Anglo-Dutch war (1665-67)

-The war was popular in England.

-It represented no significant change in direction of English foreign policy, and it appealed to the same commercial interests in England as did the first Anglo-Dutch war.

Foreign policy changes reputation

-Wars lost = Lost prestige for government.

-In 1664 there was no criticism of the government whatsoever.

-Parliament also granted massive supplies to Charles to fight the war.

How much did parliament grant Charles in Feb + Oct 1665 to fight the second Anglo-Dutch war?

-Feb 1665: £2.5mil

-Oct 1665:£1.25mil

What did Charles have to do to secure finance for the war?

He had to pass the Five Mile act (1665)

Problems during the Second Anglo-Dutch war

-Parliament expected a quick victory with all the money they had granted Charles.

-From Oct 1665 England suffered and neared financial collapse.

-The plague broke out in London, killing 100,000 people in 1665.

-Then the Great Fire of London broke out, Charles tried to help since he ran away from the outbreak of the plague.

Crown and Parliament tension develop over second Anglo-Dutch war

-Sept 1666:Parliament voted further subsidies for the Anglo-Dutch war, but on the condition that a royal commission be established to examine the nation's finances.

Second Anglo-Dutch war made finance a problem

-Charles felt parliament were out to humiliate him.

-He believed parliament were overstepping their boundaries and encroaching on his Royal prerogative and rights to a private life.

-The war nearly bankrupted the crown and placed the king at mercy with his parliament.

Raid on the Medway (June 1667)

-The Dutch sailed up the Medway and into the Thames and bombed and set fire to the English navy ships.

Consequences of the Raid on the Medway

The humiliating invasion up the Medway, as well as the Great fire of London sapped English self-confidence.

Clarendon was scapegoated (Aug 1667)

-To turn the blame away from Charles, they chose to blame Clarendon.

-Charles dismissed him as chief minister.

-30th Aug 1667, Clarendon was driven into exile.

Why was Clarendon scapegoated?

Even before humiliation at Medway, Clarendon had been criticised for his role in arranging Charles' marriage to Catherine of Braganza.

Real power now lay with parliament (1667)

-Clarendon's dismissal was a response to pressure from parliament.

Hutton's argument about Charles II

'funeral with absolute ruthlessness and petty spite upon anybody who defied him or crossed his will and then came vulnerable to his malice'.

The effect of Clarendon's departure

-Reduced the political temperature.

-Facilitated the rise of a new group of advisers (the cabal).

-The crown's relations with parliament became, for a time, more harmonious.

-Yet there remained tensions with the church and state that return to haunt Charles.

The cabal (1667-74)

C-Thomas Clifford

A-Antony Ashley Cooper (Earl of Shaftesbury)

B-George Villiers (Buckingham)

A-Henry Bennet (Earl of Arlington)

L-John Maitland (1st Duke of Lauderdale)

Thomas Clifford

-Treasurer of the Household.

-He was a crypto-catholic.

Antony Ashley Cooper (Earl of Shaftesbury)

-Chancellor of the exquecher.

-Was a member of the Barebone's parliament and protectorate regimes.

George Villiers (2nd Duke of Buckingham)

-GOAT

-He liked to play and party hard.

-Aimed to bring about religious toleration.

-Aimed for a broad church like Cromwell's in the 1650s.

Henry Bennet (Earl of Arlington)

-A catholic sympathiser

-Converted to Catholicism on his deathbed.

-Wanted a return to full prerogative powers.

John Maitland (1st Duke of Lauderdale)

-Moderate Scottish presbyterian.

-Charles' key figure up in Scotland.

Why were the political nation displeased with the cabal?

It was the furthest move away from them as there was no Anglican representation.

Conflict of policies

The defining issue of much of the 1667-74 period was the split between Catholic or Cavalier policies.

Catholic policies

Combined toleration for Catholics and Protestant non-conformists (dissenters) at home, with an alliance with Louis XIV and the French.

Cavalier policies

-Entailed unqualified support for the restored Anglican church.

-The suppression of all non-conformity (dissent) by the enforcement of the Clarendon code.

-The adoption of an anti-French, protestant foreign policy.

Charles' response to Catholic or Cavalier policies

-The strength of the anti-French party in parliament had been sufficient to force Charles to form the Triple Allice with Holland and Sweden in 1668.

-However, due to Charles' history with Louis, in 1670, backed by the cabal, neutralised his alliance with Holland and Sweden and signed the Treaty of Dover.

The triple alliance (1668)

-Formed with Holland and Sweden, to the satisfaction of those backing the cavalier policies.

-However, it was neutralised in 1670, in pursuit of alliance with Louis and the French.

The secret Treaty of Dover (1670)

-The public part of this treaty committed England to support Louis XIV against the Dutch (revealed in 1672). - this lead to the third Anglo-Dutch war.

-A secret clause committed Charles to re-converting England to Catholicism and in return Louis would pay Charles £250,000 a year.

Reasons for signing the Treaty of Dover

-Charles could become more financially independent of parliament due to the money he was receiving from Louis.

-He hoped to gain glory for England, increasing prestige.

-He may have admired his cousin louis XIV and his absolutist rule.

-Could be argued that his intention all along was to convert to Catholicism.

The Great Stop (2nd Jan 1672)

The exchequer was stopped and intended to stay stopped until 31st of Dec 1672.

Declaration of Indulgence (15th Mar 1672)

-Charles suspended Penal laws against Catholics and Protestant dissenters.

-He also introduced a second Declaration of Indulgence (he was in the pocket of Louis XIV).

Reaction to the Declaration of Indulgence

-The majority in parliament were horrified as they feared this was a sign of Popery and Arbitrary government.

-This completely overrides the Clarendon code - passed by parliament.

-They did not immediately attach him due to the Anglo-Dutch war.

-However, the war progressed poorly and due to growing unease with the Declaration of indulgence, many in parliament began to voice their concerns about the alliance with absolutist France.

Parliament became more vocal (1673)

-Parliament were still unaware with Charles' connections with the French.

-To calm the storm, Charles passed the Test Act (1673). This pleased parliament.

Test Act (1673)

Barred all Catholics from sitting in parliament and holding positions of high office.

What did Arlington do in Spring 1673?

-Fled to Holland, and created a Dutch propaganda campaign to publicise the secret clauses in the Treaty of Dover.

-The accusations of Charles were widely believed.

Consequences of the Test act

-James, Duke of York resigned his position as Lord Admiral - indicating irrefutably that he was a Catholic.

-Thomas Clifford (C) also resigned his position in the government in June.

James' marriage (Sept 1673)

-James married 15 year old, Catholic Princess of Italy, Mary of Moderna. (nonce).

-This outraged parliament as it meant the line of succession had the potential to become Catholic.

1673 was a turning point

-Parliament insisted the alliance with the French must end, and in the Jan-Feb session refused to granted Charles money.

-This forced the Treaty of Westminster (Feb 1674)

Treaty of Westminster (Feb 1674)

A peace treaty that ended the third Anglo-Dutch war.

When did the cabal fall?

1674

Who did Charles appoint to replace the Cabal?

Thomas Osbourne - Lord Danby.

What did Danby aim to do?

-Danby believed he had the political ability to control Charles.

-The first thing he wanted was to change Charles' policies from Catholic to Cavalier.

What did Charles do in 1674?

Abandoned half of his Catholic policies of religious toleration - however, kept the pro-French foreign policy as he needed Louis' money.

Rise of Danby

-Danby replaced Shaftesbury as the 'a' in cabal.

-Danby established his authority over the rest of the cabal - Buckingham's feud with Arlington saw more leaked in the Treaty of Dover, casing both to fall out of favour with Charles.

-Charles did not like Danby, but recognised his political talent.

Danby's aims

-Was committed to the Church of England and opposed toleration for either Catholics or dissenters.

-He advocated a pro-Dutch, anti-foreign policy.

-He negotiated the marriage of Mary (Charles' niece) to William of Orange in 1677.

-He sought to create a 'court' party in parliament.

-He dominated political life between 1674-78.

-Danby desired to increase trade, credit and power abroad - he was a determined enemy of Catholic influence.