Anatomy and Physiology II Final Review

Vocabulary practice cards covering reproductive, endocrine, blood, cardiovascular, lymphatic, digestive, respiratory, and urinary systems based on the lecture notes.

Sertoli cells

Cells that support and nourish spermatogenic cells throughout their development into sperm ($spermatozoa$).

Pathway of sperm

The route following the sequence: Testes, seminiferous tubules, rete testis, epididymis, ductus van deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra.

Primary oocyte (Step 6)

A cell that completes meiosis I just before ovulation, creating a secondary oocyte and a nonviable polar body.

Secondary oocyte fertilization

A process where the secondary oocyte completes meiosis II only if fertilized by a sperm cell, forming an oocyte and a second polar body.

Ovulation trigger

A surge of $LH$ (luteinizing hormone) released from the anterior pituitary gland.

Female androgens

Hormones that cause the growth of pubic and axillary hair at puberty and prevent the oversecretion of $FSH$ and $LH$.

Alveolar glands

Specific glands within the mammary glands that produce milk in a lactating female.

Uterine wall layers

The Endometrium (mucosa), Myometrium (muscle layer), and Perimetrium (serosa).

Hormone

A chemical messenger released by an endocrine gland that travels via the bloodstream to reach target cells.

Target cell

A cell that responds to a specific hormone and acts as the receiver of the message.

Posterior Pituitary hormones

Hormones synthesized in the hypothalamus but stored and released by the posterior pituitary, including Antidiuretic hormone ($ADH$) and Oxytocin ($OT$).

Glucagon

A hormone that stimulates the liver to break down glycogen, converts noncarbohydrates into glucose, stimulates the breakdown of fats, and increases blood glucose.

Upregulation

An increase in the number of receptors on a target cell in response to a decrease in hormone levels.

Downregulation

A decrease in the number of receptors on a target cell due to an increase in hormone levels.

Tropic hormones

Hormones that act on other glands and originate from the hypothalamus.

Exocrine glands

Glands that secrete externally into ducts or tubes leading to a body surface and deliver products to specific sites.

Endocrine glands

Ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into bodily fluids to act on specific target cells.

Hematocrit

The percentage of red blood cells ($RBCs$) in a blood sample.

Blood Composition

Plasma ($55 \\times 10^{-2}$) and formed elements ($45 \\times 10^{-2}$); $RBCs$ make up approximately $42.75 \\times 10^{-2}$ of total human blood.

Granulocytes

A category of white blood cells including Neutrophils, Eosinophils, and Basophils.

Agranulocytes

A category of white blood cells including Lymphocytes and Monocytes.

Lymphocytes

Provide immunity; $T$ cells attack pathogens and tumor cells while $B$ cells produce antibodies.

Neutrophils

Strong phagocytes making up $54$ to 70 \\, \\text{%} of leukocytes; the first to arrive at infection sites using a respiratory burst toxic chemical cloud.

Eosinophils

Leukocytes ($1$ to 3 \\, \\text{%}) that kill parasites, moderate allergic reactions, and defend against tapeworms and roundworms.

Basophils

Leukocytes (less than 1 \\, \\text{%}) that release histamine to stimulate inflammation and heparin to stop blood from clotting.

Pernicious anemia

A deficiency of intrinsic factor from the stomach causing inadequate vitamin $B\\_{12}$ absorption.

Aplastic anemia

Destruction of bone marrow by radiation, medications, cancer, viruses, or poisons.

Sickle cell anemia

An abnormal hemoglobin structure caused by a defective gene.

Serotonin (Hemostasis)

A substance released from platelets during vascular spasm that causes vasoconstriction to reduce blood loss.

Systemic circuit

Circuit transporting oxygen-rich blood and nutrients to body cells, removing wastes, and returning oxygen-poor blood to the heart.

Cardiac Conduction System Sequence

$SA$ node $\\rightarrow$ Internodal atrial muscle $\\rightarrow$ junctional fibers $\\rightarrow$ $AV$ node $\\rightarrow$ $AV$ bundle (of His) $\\rightarrow$ $L$ and $R$ bundle branches $\\rightarrow$ Purkinje fibers.

SA (Sinoatrial) Node

The pacemaker of the heart that initiates rhythmic contractions.

AV (Atrioventricular) Node

The structure that conducts impulses to the $AV$ bundle while delaying the impulse to ensure atria finish contracting before ventricles contract.

Cardioinhibitory reflex

A reflex triggered by aortic baroreceptors that signals the medulla to send parasympathetic impulses via the vagus nerve to lower heart rate and blood pressure.

Popliteal artery

An artery located behind the knee joint.

Ventricular systole (Valves)

The contraction phase where semilunar valves (Pulmonary/Aortic) are open and $AV$ valves (Tricuspid/Bicuspid) are closed.

Ventricular diastole (Valves)

The relaxation phase where $AV$ valves are open and semilunar valves are closed.

Spleen

The largest lymphatic organ; it is divided into lobules, resembles a large lymph node, and filters blood.

Incisors

Teeth best adapted for biting off food.

Lingual frenulum

Structure that attaches the tongue to the floor of the mouth.

Stomach Body

The main portion of the stomach located between the fundus and the pylorus.

Liver Functions

Maintaining glucose, detoxification, storage of glycogen and vitamins ($A, B\\_{12}, D$), and production of bile.

Emphysema

A $COPD$ where alveolar walls are destroyed, causing clusters of alveoli to merge and decreasing surface area for gas exchange.

Vital capacity ($VC$)

The maximum volume of air exhaled after the deepest breath possible, calculated as $VC = TV + IRV + ERV$ (approximately $4600 \\ mL$).

Tidal volume ($TV$)

The volume of air moved in or out of the lungs during a respiratory cycle, approximately $500 \\, mL$.

Boyle's law

The law defining the inverse relationship where higher volume leads to lower pressure and lower volume leads to higher pressure ($V \\times P = k$).

Respiratory membrane

A structure formed by fused basement membranes of simple squamous epithelium from the alveolar wall and blood capillary wall.

Pharynx Sections

Ordered superior to inferior: Nasopharynx, Oropharynx, Laryngopharynx.

Minute ventilation ($MV$)

The volume of air moved into respiratory passages each minute, calculated as $MV = TV \\times \\text{breating rate}$.

Renal corpuscle

The part of the nephron consisting of the glomerulus and glomerular capsule used for filtering blood.

Kidney Blood Flow Sequence

Renal artery $\\rightarrow$ Segmental artery $\\rightarrow$ Interlobar artery $\\rightarrow$ Arcuate artery $\\rightarrow$ Cortical radiate artery $\\rightarrow$ Afferent arteriole $\\rightarrow$ Glomerulus $\\rightarrow$ Efferent arteriole $\\rightarrow$ Peritubular capillaries/Vasa recta $\\rightarrow$ Cortical radiate vein $\\rightarrow$ Arcuate vein $\\rightarrow$ Interlobar vein $\\rightarrow$ Renal vein $\\rightarrow$ Inferior vena cava.

Hemoglobin function

The molecule in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and returns carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.

Antigens

Substances that trigger an immune response; foreign substances in the body.

Vaccines

Preparations that stimulate an immune response to provide protection against specific diseases.

Homeostasis

The process of maintaining a stable internal environment in the body.

Enzymes

Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in the body without being consumed.

Metabolism

The sum of all chemical processes that occur in an organism to maintain life.

Osmosis

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Diffusion

The movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

Filtration

The process of separating solids from liquids or gases using a filter or a porous medium.

Neurons

The basic functional units of the nervous system that transmit impulses.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons or between a neuron and a muscle cell.

Muscle types

The three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.

Action potential

A temporary change in electrical potential across a cell membrane that occurs when a neuron is stimulated.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released by neurons that transmit signals across synapses to other cells.

Immune system

The body's defense system against pathogens and disease.

Hormonal regulation

The control of bodily functions through hormones secreted by glands.

Blood pressure

The force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels.

Respiration

The process of exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body and the environment.

Cirrhosis

The scarring of the liver due to long-term damage.

Diabetes mellitus

A group of diseases that affect the body's ability to produce or use insulin.

Hyperthyroidism

A condition where the thyroid gland is overactive and produces excess thyroid hormones.

Hypothyroidism

A condition where the thyroid gland is underactive and does not produce enough thyroid hormones.

Adrenal glands

Glands located above the kidneys that produce hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol.

Electrolytes

Minerals in the body that carry an electric charge and are essential for various functions.

Hemostasis

The process of preventing and stopping bleeding, or hemorrhage.

Cholesterol

A waxy substance found in the blood and cells, important for building cells and hormones.

Bilirubin

A substance produced from the breakdown of red blood cells, important for liver function.

Platelets

Cell fragments in the blood that help with clotting.