Paper 2, Topic 4 The road to independence, 1942–48

Why was the Second World War a turning point in the struggle for Indian independence?

The Second World War transformed Indian politics and accelerated the collapse of British rule.

Key reasons:

• Britain became economically weakened.

• India became essential to the Allied war effort.

• Nationalist expectations increased.

• Congress demanded immediate self-government.

• The Muslim League expanded its influence.

• Britain became increasingly dependent on Indian cooperation.

Why was the threat of Japanese invasion important during the war?

Japanese victories dramatically increased pressure on Britain.

Key developments:

• Fall of Singapore (February 1942).

• Japanese conquest of Burma (1942).

• Japanese forces reached India's eastern frontier.

Consequences:

• Exposed British military weakness.

• Increased fears of invasion.

• Encouraged anti-British nationalism.

• Demonstrated that Britain could no longer guarantee security.

What was the Cripps Mission (1942)?

• The Cripps Mission was sent to India in March 1942 and was led by Sir Stafford Cripps.

• It aimed to secure Indian support for the war effort

• Britain hoped to gain cooperation from Congress and the Muslim League.

What did the Cripps Mission propose?

Main proposals:

• Dominion status after the war.

• An elected constitution-making body.

• Provinces could opt out of a future union.

• British control of defence would continue during the war.

Why did Congress and the Muslim League reject the Cripps Mission?

Congress opposed the proposals because:

• Independence was postponed until after the war, meaning there was no immediate transfer of power.

• Britain retained defence powers.

• Provinces could leave the future Indian union.

The Muslim League rejected it as:

• The League believed the proposals did not clearly guarantee Pakistan.

• Jinnah wanted:

  • Explicit recognition of Muslim nationhood.

  • Stronger safeguards for Muslim interests.

Why was the failure of the Cripps Mission significant?

Consequences:

• Destroyed hopes of wartime cooperation.

• Increased nationalist frustration.

• Encouraged Congress to launch Quit India.

• Deepened mistrust between Britain and Indian leaders.

What was the Quit India Movement (1942)?

• The Quit India Movement was launched by Congress in August 1942.

• It was led by Gandhi and demanded the immediate British withdrawal from India.

• On 8 August 1942, Congress met in Bombay and passed the Quit India Resolution.

• Congress demanded:

  • Immediate British withdrawal.

  • Indian control of government.

  • Full independence.

Why was the Quit India Movement launched?

• Failure of the Cripps Mission.

• Frustration with British rule.

• Wartime hardship.

• Growing nationalist confidence.

• Desire for immediate independence.

How did Britain respond to the Quit India Movement?

Britain responded with severe repression.

Actions:

• Gandhi arrested.

• Congress leaders imprisoned.

• Public meetings banned.

• Military force was used.

• Arrests of more than 60,000 by 1943

• Thousands of Indians killed

What were the consequences of the Quit India Movement?

Short-term:

• Congress leadership imprisoned.

• Movement suppressed.

Long-term:

• Demonstrated widespread nationalist support.

• Increased international sympathy.

• Showed Britain increasingly relied on force.

• Convinced many British politicians that long-term rule was unsustainable.

Who was Lord Wavell?

• Lord Wavell became Viceroy in 1943, replacing Linlithgow.

• He was a senior officer in the British Army, so he was chosen for his military experience.

His aims:

• Restore political stability.

• Reopen negotiations.

• Address wartime problems.

However, communal tensions increasingly limited his success.

What was the Bengal Famine of 1943?

One of the worst humanitarian disasters in modern Indian history.

Causes:

• Wartime disruption - Fearing Japanese invasion, British authorities stockpiled food to feed defending troops.

• Natural disasters e.g a cyclone in Oct 1942 damaged autumn rice crops

• Loss of Burmese rice imports.

• Inflation.

• Administrative failures.

• Poor distribution of food.

Death toll:

• Approximately 2–3 million people.

Why was the Bengal Famine significant?

The famine damaged British prestige.

Consequences:

• Increased nationalist criticism.

• Highlighted administrative failures.

• Strengthened arguments for independence.

Many Indians blamed British wartime policies for worsening the crisis.

What was the Simla Conference (1945)?

• Held by Lord Wavell in June–July 1945.

• Proposed reconstituting the Viceroy's Executive Council with balanced Indian and British representation.

• Wavell hoped to secure agreement between Congress and the Muslim League.

Why did the Simla Conference fail?

• Disagreement over Muslim representation.

• Jinnah insisted only the Muslim League could nominate Muslim representatives.

• Congress refused to accept this arguing it was a secular party and had the right to nominate Muslim members as well.

Result:

• No agreement.

• Further deterioration in relations.

The failure highlighted growing communal divisions.

Why was the USA important in the road to independence?

The USA increasingly supported self-rule.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt pressured Britain through:

• Criticism of colonialism.

• Support for constitutional reform.

• Encouragement of negotiations.

How did the Labour government influence Indian policy?

The Labour Party won the British election in July 1945.

PM was Clement Attlee.

Attitudes:

• More sympathetic to self-government.

• Recognised Britain could not maintain India indefinitely.

Labour increasingly accepted that withdrawal was necessary.

Why were the 1945–46 elections important?

The elections tested support for Congress and the Muslim League.

Results:

• Congress won most general seats.

• Muslim League:

  • Won about 86% of Muslim votes.

  • Won nearly every Muslim-reserved seat.

Significance:

• Congress represented most non-Muslims.

• The League became the dominant Muslim political organisation.

What did the elections reveal about Indian politics?

They demonstrated increasing communal polarisation.

• Congress claimed to represent a united India.

• The League claimed Muslims formed a separate nation.

What was the Cabinet Mission (1946)?

Sent by the Labour government in March 1946.

Aim:

• Find a constitutional solution.

• Avoid partition if possible.

What did the Cabinet Mission propose?

Proposals:

• United India.

• Federal system.

• Weak central government restricted to managing foreign affairs, defence, and communications.

• Provincial groupings.

  • Group A: Hindu-majority provinces

  • Group B: Muslim-majority provinces in the northwest

  • Group C: Muslim-majority provinces in the east

The plan attempted to satisfy both:

• Congress.

• Muslim League.

Why did the Cabinet Mission fail?

• Congress and the League interpreted proposals differently.

• Congress wanted strong central authority.

• League wanted strong provincial autonomy.

What was Direct Action Day?

• Called by Jinnah on 16 August 1946.

• General strikes and mass protests to demand the creation of a separate Muslim homeland, Pakistan.

• Protests spiraled into widespread communal riots between Hindus and Muslims, especially in Calcutta.

  • There were targeted killings and arson in Hindu-majority areas, followed by attacks by Hindus on Muslims.

• Resulted in thousands of deaths.

Why was Direct Action significant?

It demonstrated:

• Growing communal hostility.

• Breakdown of cooperation.

• Increasing likelihood of partition.

Many British officials concluded that unity was becoming impossible.

What was the Interim Government?

• Established in September 1946.

• Led by Nehru, who served as the Vice-President of the Viceroy's Executive Council

• Its purpose was to prepare for the transfer of power.

• Initially dominated by Congress, but the League later joined.

• However, cooperation remained poor.

Why was the Interim Government important?

Significance:

• Gave Indian leaders administrative experience.

• Demonstrated Congress's governing capacity.

• Exposed tensions between Congress and the League.

Why was Lord Mountbatten appointed Viceroy?

Appointed in March 1947.

Purpose:

• Oversee British withdrawal.

• Find a rapid political settlement.

Britain wanted a quick and orderly transfer of power.

Why did Britain decide to withdraw from India?

Economic:

• Britain was financially exhausted after WWII.

Political:

• Nationalism remained strong.

Military:

• Maintaining control would be costly.

Communal:

• Increasing violence threatened stability.

Attlee concluded British rule could not continue.

Why was partition accepted?

• Failure of constitutional compromise.

• Muslim League demand for Pakistan.

• Growing communal violence.

• Cabinet Mission collapse.

• British desire for rapid withdrawal.

By 1947 many leaders viewed partition as unavoidable.

What was the Mountbatten Plan?

Announced on 3 June 1947.

Main features:

• Partition of British India.

• Creation of India and Pakistan.

• The date for the official transfer of British power was brought forward to August 15, 1947.

• Over 500 semi-independent princely states were given the choice to accede to either India or Pakistan.

What was the Boundary Commission?

• Led by Sir Cyril Radcliffe

• Tasked to draw borders between India and Pakistan.

• Affected Punjab and Bengal

• The Commission had only weeks to complete its work.

Why was the partition plan controversial?

Problems:

• Borders drawn quickly.

• Limited local consultation.

• Mixed populations difficult to separate.

• Many communities were uncertain which country they would join.

• This increased violence and displacement.

  • Approximately 10–15 million people were displaced.

  • More than 500,000 deaths.

When did India and Pakistan become independent?

India: 14 August 1947

Pakistan: 15 August 1947