Unit 2 AP GOV

pork barrel spending

Earmarked federal funds directed to specific projects within a member's district or state to benefit local constituents.

logrolling

Trading votes among members of Congress to ensure mutual passage of each other’s favored legislation.

oversight

Executive branch supervision by Congress through hearings, investigations, and budget reviews to ensure laws are properly executed.

constituency

The body of voters or residents in a specific district or state represented by an elected official.

apportionment

The process of dividing and allocating the 435 seats in the House of Representatives among the states based on census population data every 10 years.

redistricting

The redrawing of congressional and state legislative district boundaries following a census.

malapportionment

Drawing electoral districts with unequal populations, diluting the voting power of citizens in larger districts.

gerrymandering

Intentionally redrawing district lines to give a specific political party, faction, or group an unfair electoral advantage.

majority-minority districts

Electoral districts where a voting majority consists of racial or ethnic minority groups.

incumbency

The status of currently holding an elected office.

incumbency advantage

Electoral edge held by current officeholders due to name recognition, franking privileges, existing funding sources, and constituent casework.

Speaker of the House

The constitutionally mandated leader of the House of Representatives, chosen by the majority party.

Political action committee (PAC)

An organization formed to raise and spend money to elect or defeat political candidates.

House majority leader

The second-ranking leader in the House who assists the Speaker in managing the majority party's legislative strategy and schedule.

whip

Party official responsible for enforcing party discipline, counting votes, and encouraging members to vote according to the party line.

minority leader

The elected leader of the party holding a minority of seats in either the House or Senate.

Senate majority leader

The most influential member of the Senate, responsible for setting the legislative schedule and managing floor debate.

committee chair

Head of a congressional committee, responsible for setting the agenda, controlling legislation, and scheduling hearings.

conference committee

A temporary joint committee created to resolve differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.

discharge petition

A House procedure signed by 218 members that forces a bill out of committee and directly onto the floor for a vote.

House Rules Committee

The House committee that sets conditions for debate, amendment rules, and scheduling for bills coming to the floor.

Committee of the Whole

A committee framework used by the House to expedite debate on legislation with a reduced quorum requirement of 100 members.

hold

An informal practice in the Senate where a senator requests to delay or prevent a bill or nomination from reaching the floor.

unanimous consent agreement

An agreement in the Senate that sets the terms for considering a bill, requiring approval from all 100 senators.

filibuster

A Senate tactic where extended debate is used to delay or block a vote on a bill.

cloture

A Senate procedure requiring a three-fifths vote (60 senators) to end a filibuster and limit debate.

veto

The constitutional power of the President to reject a bill passed by Congress.

entitlement program

Mandatory government spending program guaranteeing benefits to individuals meeting eligibility criteria (e.g., Social Security, Medicare).

mandatory spending

Budget allocation required by existing law that does not require annual congressional approval.

discretionary spending

Spending authorized annually through congressional appropriations bills (e.g., defense, education).

budget surplus

Situation where annual government revenue exceeds total government spending.

budget deficit

Situation where annual government spending exceeds total government revenue.

national debt

The accumulated total of all past annual federal budget deficits minus surpluses.

delegate role

Representation model where members vote strictly according to the expressed desires of their constituents.

trustee role

Representation model where members use their personal judgment to make decisions on behalf of constituents.

politico role

Representation model balancing trustee and delegate roles depending on the political visibility or importance of an issue.

bipartisanship

Cooperation and agreement between opposing political parties.

lame duck period

An elected official continuing in office during the period between losing an election (or stepping down) and the inauguration of their successor.

federal judiciary

The branch of the U.S. government responsible for interpreting federal laws and the Constitution.

Supreme Court

The highest judicial tribunal in the United States, established under Article III of the Constitution.

Original jurisdiction

The legal authority of a court to hear and decide a case for the first time.

appellate jurisdiction

The legal authority of a court to review, modify, or reverse decisions made by lower courts.

Federalist No. 78

Essay by Alexander Hamilton arguing for an independent judiciary, lifetime tenure for judges, and judicial review.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Landmark Supreme Court case establishing the judicial branch's power of judicial review.

judicial review

The power of courts to review actions of the executive and legislative branches and declare them unconstitutional.

federal district courts

The trial courts of the federal court system, holding original jurisdiction over civil and criminal federal matters.

federal courts of appeals

Intermediate federal courts that exercise appellate jurisdiction over decisions from district courts.

precedent

A judicial decision that serves as an authority or rule for deciding subsequent cases involving similar legal issues.

stare decisis

The legal doctrine of adhering to precedent when deciding pending legal cases.

majority opinion

The official, legally binding ruling of the Supreme Court agreed upon by more than half of the justices.

concurring opinion

An opinion written by a justice who agrees with the majority decision but offers different or additional legal reasoning.

dissenting opinion

An opinion written by one or more justices who disagree with the majority's decision and rationale.

judicial restraint

Philosophy encouraging judges to defer to precedent and legislative decisions, limiting the assertion of judicial power.

Judicial activism

Philosophy holding that judges should actively interpret the Constitution to uphold rights and adapt laws to modern societal needs.

Shaw v Reno (1993)

Shaw v. Reno (1993):

Fact: North Carolina drew a strangely shaped majority-minority district to increase Black representation.

Holding: Race cannot be the predominant factor in drawing district lines, even to aid minority representation, unless narrowly tailored to satisfy a compelling government interest.

Reasoning: Redistricting based solely on race violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

Baker v Carr.

Fact: Tennessee citizens claimed state legislative reapportionment ignored population shifts, diluting urban votes.

Holding: Legislative redistricting disputes are justiciable under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment ("one person, one vote").

Reasoning: Court intervention is permitted when state apportionment denies equal protection under the law.