Unit 2 AP GOV
pork barrel spending: Earmarked federal funds directed to specific projects within a member's district or state to benefit local constituents.
logrolling: Trading votes among members of Congress to ensure mutual passage of each other’s favored legislation.
oversight: Executive branch supervision by Congress through hearings, investigations, and budget reviews to ensure laws are properly executed.
constituency: The body of voters or residents in a specific district or state represented by an elected official.
apportionment: The process of dividing and allocating the 435 seats in the House of Representatives among the states based on census population data every 10 years.
redistricting: The redrawing of congressional and state legislative district boundaries following a census.
malapportionment: Drawing electoral districts with unequal populations, diluting the voting power of citizens in larger districts.
gerrymandering: Intentionally redrawing district lines to give a specific political party, faction, or group an unfair electoral advantage.
majority-minority districts: Electoral districts where a voting majority consists of racial or ethnic minority groups.
incumbency: The status of currently holding an elected office.
incumbency advantage: Electoral edge held by current officeholders due to name recognition, franking privileges, existing funding sources, and constituent casework.
Speaker of the House: The constitutionally mandated leader of the House of Representatives, chosen by the majority party.
Political action committee (PAC): An organization formed to raise and spend money to elect or defeat political candidates.
House majority leader: The second-ranking leader in the House who assists the Speaker in managing the majority party's legislative strategy and schedule.
whip: Party official responsible for enforcing party discipline, counting votes, and encouraging members to vote according to the party line.
minority leader: The elected leader of the party holding a minority of seats in either the House or Senate.
Senate majority leader: The most influential member of the Senate, responsible for setting the legislative schedule and managing floor debate.
committee chair: Head of a congressional committee, responsible for setting the agenda, controlling legislation, and scheduling hearings.
conference committee: A temporary joint committee created to resolve differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.
discharge petition: A House procedure signed by 218 members that forces a bill out of committee and directly onto the floor for a vote.
House Rules Committee: The House committee that sets conditions for debate, amendment rules, and scheduling for bills coming to the floor.
Committee of the Whole: A committee framework used by the House to expedite debate on legislation with a reduced quorum requirement of 100 members.
hold: An informal practice in the Senate where a senator requests to delay or prevent a bill or nomination from reaching the floor.
unanimous consent agreement: An agreement in the Senate that sets the terms for considering a bill, requiring approval from all 100 senators.
filibuster: A Senate tactic where extended debate is used to delay or block a vote on a bill.
cloture: A Senate procedure requiring a three-fifths vote (60 senators) to end a filibuster and limit debate.
veto: The constitutional power of the President to reject a bill passed by Congress.
entitlement program: Mandatory government spending program guaranteeing benefits to individuals meeting eligibility criteria (e.g., Social Security, Medicare).
mandatory spending: Budget allocation required by existing law that does not require annual congressional approval.
discretionary spending: Spending authorized annually through congressional appropriations bills (e.g., defense, education).
budget surplus: Situation where annual government revenue exceeds total government spending.
budget deficit: Situation where annual government spending exceeds total government revenue.
national debt: The accumulated total of all past annual federal budget deficits minus surpluses.
delegate role: Representation model where members vote strictly according to the expressed desires of their constituents.
trustee role: Representation model where members use their personal judgment to make decisions on behalf of constituents.
politico role: Representation model balancing trustee and delegate roles depending on the political visibility or importance of an issue.
bipartisanship: Cooperation and agreement between opposing political parties.
lame duck period: An elected official continuing in office during the period between losing an election (or stepping down) and the inauguration of their successor.
federal judiciary: The branch of the U.S. government responsible for interpreting federal laws and the Constitution.
Supreme Court: The highest judicial tribunal in the United States, established under Article III of the Constitution.
Original jurisdiction: The legal authority of a court to hear and decide a case for the first time.
appellate jurisdiction: The legal authority of a court to review, modify, or reverse decisions made by lower courts.
Federalist No. 78: Essay by Alexander Hamilton arguing for an independent judiciary, lifetime tenure for judges, and judicial review.
Marbury v. Madison (1803): Landmark Supreme Court case establishing the judicial branch's power of judicial review.
judicial review: The power of courts to review actions of the executive and legislative branches and declare them unconstitutional.
federal district courts: The trial courts of the federal court system, holding original jurisdiction over civil and criminal federal matters.
federal courts of appeals: Intermediate federal courts that exercise appellate jurisdiction over decisions from district courts.
precedent: A judicial decision that serves as an authority or rule for deciding subsequent cases involving similar legal issues.
stare decisis: The legal doctrine of adhering to precedent when deciding pending legal cases.
majority opinion: The official, legally binding ruling of the Supreme Court agreed upon by more than half of the justices.
concurring opinion: An opinion written by a justice who agrees with the majority decision but offers different or additional legal reasoning.
dissenting opinion: An opinion written by one or more justices who disagree with the majority's decision and rationale.
judicial restraint: Philosophy encouraging judges to defer to precedent and legislative decisions, limiting the assertion of judicial power.
Judicial activism: Philosophy holding that judges should actively interpret the Constitution to uphold rights and adapt laws to modern societal needs.