Ap Psychology Exam 2026

Psychology

study of behavior and mental processes

Structuralism

breaking mental processes into basic parts

Functionalism

how mental processes help us adapt

Behaviorism

study of observable behavior only

Humanistic psychology

focus on personal growth and free will

Cognitive psychology

study of thinking, memory, problem-solving

Biological psychology

how the brain and body affect behavior

Nature vs nurture

genes vs environment influence

Evolutionary psychology

behavior explained by survival/adaptation

Levels of analysis

different ways to study behavior (bio, psych, social)

Hypothesis

testable prediction

Theory

explanation based on evidence

Independent variable

what is changed

Dependent variable

what is measured

Confounding variable

unwanted factor affecting results

Random assignment

placing participants randomly into groups

Experimental research

shows cause and effect

Correlational research

shows relationship, not cause

Case study

in-depth study of one person/group

Naturalistic observation

watching behavior in real life

Operational definition

clear, measurable definition of a variable

Reliability

consistency of results

Validity

accuracy of results

Mean

average

Median

middle value

Mode

most frequent value

Standard deviation

how spread out data is

Correlation coefficient

strength/direction of relationship (-1 to +1)

Illusory correlation

seeing a relationship that isn't there

Hindsight bias

"I knew it all along" thinking

Confirmation bias

only looking for info that supports beliefs

Neuron

nerve cell

Dendrite

receives messages

Axon

sends messages

Synapse

gap between neurons

Action potential

electrical impulse in neuron

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers

Agonist

increases neurotransmitter effect

Antagonist

blocks neurotransmitter effect

Central nervous system (CNS)

brain + spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

nerves outside CNS

Sympathetic nervous system

arouses (fight-or-flight)

Parasympathetic nervous system

calms body

Endocrine system

hormone system

Pituitary gland

"master" gland controlling others

Adrenal glands

release stress hormones

Medulla

controls breathing/heartbeat

Pons

sleep and movement

Cerebellum

balance and coordination

Thalamus

sensory relay station

Hypothalamus

hunger, body temp, hormones

Amygdala

emotion (fear/aggression)

Hippocampus

memory formation

Frontal lobe

decision making, personality

Parietal lobe

touch

Temporal lobe

hearing

Occipital lobe

vision

EEG

records brain waves

MRI

brain structure scan

fMRI

shows brain activity

PET scan

shows brain function using chemicals

Absolute threshold

minimum stimulation needed to detect

Difference threshold

smallest noticeable difference

Weber's law

difference depends on proportion

Signal detection theory

detecting stimuli depends on mindset

Sensory adaptation

reduced sensitivity over time

Gestalt principles

brain groups things into patterns

Depth perception

seeing distance

Top-down processing

using experience to interpret

Bottom-up processing

building perception from senses

Encoding

getting info into memory

Storage

keeping info

Retrieval

getting info out

Sensory memory

very brief memory

Short-term memory

temporary memory

Long-term memory

long-lasting memory

Working memory

active thinking memory

Explicit memory

conscious memory

Implicit memory

unconscious memory

Long-term potentiation

stronger neuron connections

Amnesia

memory loss

Retrieval cues

hints to recall memory

Priming

exposure influences response

Algorithm

step-by-step solution

Heuristic

mental shortcut

Availability heuristic

judging by what comes to mind easily

Confirmation bias

favoring existing beliefs

Classical conditioning

learning by association

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

naturally triggers response

Unconditioned response (UCR)

natural reaction

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

learned trigger

Conditioned response (CR)

learned reaction

Operant conditioning

learning through consequences

Reinforcement

increases behavior

Positive reinforcement

adding something good

Negative reinforcement

removing something bad

Punishment

decreases behavior

Schedules of reinforcement

timing of rewards

Observational learning

learning by watching

Cognitive map

mental layout of environment