EMPR 270 Final

Big Five personality traits

conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness to experience, and extraversion

conscientiousness

being organized, dependable, disciplined, and goal-oriented; strongest general predictor of task performance

difference between personality and values

personality is what a person tends to do, while values are what a person believes ought to be done

self-concept clarity

the degree to which self-concept is clearly defined, stable, and confidently understood

self-concept consistency

the degree to which a person's identities are compatible with one another

self-concept complexity

the number of distinct and important identities a person has and how separate they are

social identity theory

part of self-concept comes from group membership, creating in-groups and out-groups and linking to needs for belonging and distinctiveness

attribution theory

the process of deciding whether behaviour is caused mainly by internal or external factors

fundamental attribution error

tendency to overestimate internal causes and underestimate situational causes when explaining other people's behaviour

self-serving bias

tendency to attribute successes to internal causes and failures to external causes

stereotyping

assigning traits or characteristics to a person based on group membership

halo effect

one characteristic dominates the overall impression of a person

false-consensus effect

assuming other people think and behave the same way we do

primacy effect

giving too much weight to first impressions

recency effect

giving too much weight to the most recent information

self-fulfilling prophecy

expectations about another person cause us to behave in ways that make those expectations come true

how to reduce perceptual bias

slow down judgments, use objective information, seek different perspectives, and use structured processes where possible

emotions

brief psychological, behavioural, and physiological episodes that create readiness for action

moods

longer-lasting emotional states usually not directed at a specific object or event

emotional labour

the effort, planning, and control needed to display organizationally desired emotions

surface acting

displaying required emotions without actually feeling them; more stressful and less authentic

deep acting

trying to genuinely feel the emotion the organization expects you to display

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, regulate, and use emotions effectively

affective commitment

emotional attachment to and identification with the organization

continuance commitment

staying because leaving would be costly

normative commitment

staying because of a sense of obligation

job satisfaction

a person's evaluation of their job and work context

EVLN model

four responses to dissatisfaction: exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect

exit

leaving the situation through quitting, transferring, or absenteeism

voice

actively trying to improve the situation by speaking up or problem-solving

loyalty

passively waiting and hoping for improvement while staying supportive

neglect

reducing effort, punctuality, interest, or work quality

service-profit chain model

employee satisfaction improves service quality, which improves customer satisfaction and organizational performance

General Adaptation Syndrome

stress process involving alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

burnout

emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced personal accomplishment caused by prolonged stress

four-drive theory

people are motivated by the drives to acquire, bond, comprehend, and defend, and these drives should be reasonably balanced

drive to acquire

desire for resources, rewards, status, and achievement

drive to bond

desire for relationships, belonging, and mutual care

drive to comprehend

desire to learn, understand, and find meaning

drive to defend

desire to protect oneself and maintain fairness and security

expectancy theory

motivation depends on expectancy, instrumentality, and valence

expectancy

belief that effort will lead to successful performance

instrumentality

belief that performance will lead to rewards or outcomes

valence

the value a person places on a reward or outcome

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

theory proposing needs range from physiological needs to self-actualization, though the strict hierarchy is criticized

learned needs theory

some needs are shaped by experience, especially achievement, affiliation, and power

need for achievement

desire for challenge, accomplishment, and feedback

need for affiliation

desire for approval, belonging, and harmonious relationships

need for power

desire to influence or control others

goal setting theory

specific, challenging goals improve performance more than vague or easy goals

effective feedback

feedback should be specific, timely, relevant, credible, and frequent enough to guide performance

organizational justice

employee perceptions of fairness in outcomes, procedures, and treatment

distributive justice

fairness of outcomes received

procedural justice

fairness of the procedures used to make decisions and allocate outcomes

interactional justice

fairness of interpersonal treatment and explanations

equity theory

people judge fairness by comparing their input-output ratio to that of others

job characteristics model

jobs are more motivating when they have skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback

skill variety

the degree to which a job uses different skills and talents

task identity

the degree to which a job involves completing a whole and identifiable piece of work

task significance

the degree to which a job affects other people in an important way

autonomy

the degree of freedom and discretion in scheduling and performing work

feedback in JCM

information from the job itself about performance effectiveness

rational decision-making process

identify the problem, identify criteria, weight criteria, develop alternatives, evaluate alternatives, and choose the best option

problem identification

the first and often most subjective step because problems are interpreted rather than simply discovered

implicit favourites bias

choosing a preferred alternative too early and then judging later information through that preference

anchoring and adjustment bias

relying too much on initial information and adjusting too little away from it

availability bias

overestimating the likelihood of events that are easier to remember

representativeness bias

judging probability based on surface similarity rather than actual likelihood

team

two or more people who interact, influence one another, share goals, are mutually accountable, and see themselves as a social unit

difference between team and group

teams have stronger interdependence, shared goals, accountability, and identity than ordinary groups

team effectiveness

the extent to which a team meets objectives, satisfies members, and maintains viability for future work

process losses

time, energy, and resources spent on coordination and maintenance instead of task performance

social loafing

reduced individual effort in group work, especially when contributions are less visible

how to minimize social loafing

increase accountability, keep teams smaller, build cohesion, and make the work meaningful

communication process model

sender encodes a message, sends it through a channel, the receiver decodes it, and feedback confirms understanding

spoken communication

useful for emotion, persuasion, and immediate feedback, but less permanent and sometimes less precise

written communication

useful for detail, accuracy, record-keeping, and retrieval, but lacks immediate feedback and emotional richness

nonverbal communication

communication through facial expressions, tone, silence, gestures, and other cues beyond words

synchronicity

whether communication happens in real time or with delay

social presence

the sense of interpersonal connection created by a communication medium

social acceptance

how appropriate a communication medium is seen to be in a given culture or setting

media richness

the amount of information and cues a channel can carry; richer media are better for ambiguous or emotional issues

barriers to communication

noise, filtering, jargon, overload, selective perception, and physical or cultural distractions that interfere with understanding

power

the capacity to influence others

influence

any attempt to change someone's attitudes or behaviour

five sources of power

legitimate, reward, coercive, expert, and referent power

legitimate power

power derived from formal authority or role expectations

reward power

power based on controlling rewards others value

coercive power

power based on punishment or threat of punishment

expert power

power based on valuable knowledge or skill

referent power

power based on admiration, respect, or identification with a person

four contingencies of power

nonsubstitutability, centrality, discretion, and visibility

persuasion

using logic and evidence to convince others

consultation

involving others to build commitment and support

ingratiation

using flattery or friendliness to gain favour

exchange

offering something in return for support or cooperation

coalition

forming alliances with others to strengthen your position

upward appeal

appealing to higher authority to gain support

pressure

using demands, threats, or persistent reminders to gain compliance

task conflict

disagreement about the work itself; can sometimes be constructive if managed well