1) Impact of end of WW1; Political crises of 1918; Weimar constitution

According to specification: The impat of war and the political crises of October to November 1918; the context for the establishment of the Weimar constitution; terms. strengths and weaknesses.

Define 'nationalism'?

An ideology that promotes the concept of a nation having the right to govern the state in which it lives ('self-determination' or 'popular sovereignty').

Define 'civic' or liberal' nationalism?

A form of nationalism that promotes national identity through shared liberal values such as freedom, tolerance, equality and individual rights. It defines itself as what it is not or is against!

Define ethnonationalism?

A form of nationalism that promotes nationsl identity through shared heritage, usually meaning a shared common language, religion and ethnicity.

Define anti-Semitism?

Hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against, Jewish people.

> racial anti-Semitism - a person's hostility comes from the belief that Jewish people are a distinct race and cannot ever become a part of that person's nation.

Define romanticism?

an artistic and intellectual movement from the late 1700s that emphasised subjectivity, intuition, emotion, imagination and an appreciation of nature in society and culture over scientific rationalisation.

Define 'social Darwinism'?

the theory that individuals, groups, and peoples are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection - belief in 'survival of the fittest' - where strong states prosper; weak dies and driven by a dear of the biological decline of a nation!

Define 'republic'?

a system of government in which the Head of State, or President, is elected into office.

Define 'armistice'?

an agreement to suspend fighting in order to allow a peace treaty to be negotiated.

Briefly explain the political structure of the Second Reich (1871-1918)...

• semi-democracy > universal suffrage for males over 25 + no constitutional statement of individual rights.

• semi-autocracy > Kaiser (Emperor) could appoint/dismiss government, controlled Reichstag, controlled foreign policy + armed forces.

Briefly explain the economy/society of the Second Reich? (4)

1) working class > urban areas > rising wages but poor working conditions.

2) middle class > mostly urban > rising wealth

3) farmers > agricultural areas > poor as prices fluctuated...

4) aristocracy > mostly agricultural areas > under pressure from fluctuating agricultural prices. In Prussia, large landowners with lots of political power (junkers), not necessarily wealthy > only eldest inherited so younger sons went to army or civil service (dominated).

Explain the minorities within the Second Reich?

> substantial number of non-German minorities - approx. 10% of population - largest were Poles in the East but also French in Alsace-Lorraine...

> split between 60% Protestant and 40% Catholic.

Was Germany a strong, united and stable nation-state in 1914? (Pre-war?) (3)

> Strong - Yes - given its industrial might, educational progress and army strength.

> United - No - divisions were present with a mass of competing interests and contradictions!

> Stable - Arguable? - the obvious divisions were successfully kept in check through the Second-Reich's semi-absolutist system of governmemt without the need for military force to suppress revolution BUT this only worked if factors external to Germany's internal politics did not weaken this political system's ability to hold onto power.

Explain the circumstances and time of the OHL?

Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL) > military dictatorship.

> in 1916, Field Marshall Paul von Hindenburg and General Ludendorff took command > sidelined the Kaiser + Chancellor > they made all the decisions, due to the war primarily military but also included political and economic!

Explain the events leading up to the October Reforms?

by the end of September 1918, it became to clear to General Ludendorff & the German High Commanders that they were close to defeat - realised Germany's only hope to avoid total humiliation was to ask Allies for an armistice.

> US President Wilson's 14 points offered basis for negotiations of peace but Germany's autocratic political system was a barrier, therefore Ludendorff advocated for a partial democratisation...

Explain Ludendorff's role in the Kaiser's downfall? Reasons (3)?

backed 'democracy' & persuaded the Kaiser to hand over power to a civilian government that had the support of the majority if the Reichstag + called for an immediate armistice.

Reasons included:

> allies likely to be more sympathetic to a democratic, civilian-led government.

> wished to prevent a revolutionary situation at home & avoid what he witnessed of the Russian bolsheviks.

> to shift the blame for Germany's surrender from those responsible (conservative elite & OHL) to the new civilian government.

Explain the 'stab in the back' myth?

OHL lied to protect the army's social position claiming 'the army was undefeated and could have won' + 'Germany lost because the politicians gave in' + 'pacifists back home undermined the war effort' + 'the civilian government did not back the army'.

• also claimed the unfavourable armistice terms were the civilian government's fault.

Reality: Germany's aristocracy got into war & lost it but wanted to remain its social place so lied...

Explain the October Reforms of 1918?

Following Ludendorff's recommendations, Kaiser Wilhelm II became reforms (ending his autocratic rule).

• appointed Prince Max of Baden as Chancellor of the Reichstag.

  • Chancellor responsible for Reichstag and established government based on the majority parties.

• armed forces were put under the control of the civil government.

What was the aims of the October Reforms?

originally initiated by Ludendorff's encouragement + Kaiser Wilhelm's actions - amounted to a 'revolution from above' as led to major constitutional transformation - designed to save Germany from total humiliation BUT also to save the Kaiser's rule.

Explain the events surrounding the 'peace note'?

On 3rd October 1918, Prince Max wrote to US President Wilson asking for an armistice - received a response 3 weeks later due to American suspicions, demanding Germany's evacuation from all occupied territories, end of submarine warfare, a dully democratised political system - basically needed German surrender and the abdication of the Kaiser.

• Ludendorff couldn't accept so tried to gather support for final military stand to resist - failed and fled to Sweden.

What was the impact of news about the peace note? (3/4)

*first time the German people had learned the truth about Germany's position in the war and the severity of the situation - admission that Germany had lost the war.

> undermined the public's respect for the Kaiser & military/political leaders - soldiers began losing respect for their officers.

> Kaiser was increasingly seen as an obstacle for peace.

> 28 October - Germany's navy command ordered ships from Wilhelmshaven to attack British ships in a final attempt - crews of 2 cruisers refused to obey orders.

Explain the events of the November 'Revolution' of 1918?

> 3rd November, sailors at the main German navy base, Kiel, mutinied against their officers & took control over their base.

> by 6th Nov - worker's + soldier's councils being formed across Germany - members were patriotic Germans who wanted abdication of Kaiser + establishment of democratic republic.

> 8th Nov - Bavarian monarchy deposed + republic declared.

> 9th Nov - SPD called on workers in Berlin to strike, threatening to withdraw support from Prince Max's government unless abdication in next 24hrs.

What was the impact the November Revolution? (3/4)

• 9th Nov - avoid SPD threats, Prince Max released press statement announcing Kaiser's abdication.

  • also himself resigned & handed position to Friedrich Ebert who was leader of SPD.

• Philip Scheidmann (leading figure SPD) stood on the Reichstag balcony declaring a new German Republic.

• General Groener told the Kaiser that the army would no longer support him - no choice by to accept the involuntary abdication.

Outline the failures/successes of the October reforms? From the pov of Ludendorff/conservative elite... (3/4)

> led to the Kiel mutiny in November...

> revolt spread - 1) workers/soldiers set up councils across the country; 2) republic declared in Bavaria independent from the rest of Germany; 3) SPD called general strike + Kaiser's abdication; 4) Ebert (SPD) became head of government...

Outline's Ebert's initial struggle in power? (3/4)

• come to power through a revolutionary act - aware government lacked legitimacy & determined to establish new constitution.

  • only head of a provisional coalition government based on a temporary agreement between SPD + USPD.

• On the same day as Scheidermann's declaration of a new Republic, Karl Liebknecht (radical revolutionary) declared a soviet republic.

• urged workers to keep essential services running to avoid street demonstrations + disruption = his authority did not extend much beyond Berlin & after armistice, street demonstrations/strikes became regular.

Outline the purpose/mission of the SPD? (4)

> moderate socialists

> aimed to establish a socialist republic through parliamentary democracy (evolution NOT revolution).

> strategy included democratic elections, moderate changes but avoid a communist revolution.

> Policies: keep law & order using existing systems, maintain the army, introduce welfare benefits.

Outline the purpose/mission of the USPD? (4)

> Radical socialists - Independent German Social Democratic Party.

> aimed to create a socialist republic governed by workers' & soldiers' councils in conjunctions with parliament.

> strategy included radical economic & social change.

> Policies: reform the army, nationalise some industries, introduce benefits.

Outline the purpose/mission of the Spartacists? (4)

> revolutionary socialists - Spartacist League...

> aimed to create a socialist republic based on the rule of the workers' + soldiers' councils.

> strategies included opposing National Assembly, take power through revolution & create fundamental social change.

> policies: replace the army with workers' militias, nationalise industry extensively & introduce benefits.

Explain pressure from the left regarding the new German Republic? (3)

> workers and soldiers councils, footholds for the USP & the spacticists, would not allow Ebert's government to make key decisions without reference to them.

> Nov 22 - agreement between government & councils whereby the government accepted that they only exercised power in the name of these councils (temporary compromise)...

> Many in the USP (leaders were part of Ebert's council) viewed the councils as the true expression of the revolutionary will of the people - believed the autocratic system wouldn't be abolished unless aristocratic estates broken up, and the army, civil service and judiciary were fully democratised.

Explain the Ebert-Groener Pact?

Ebert's government required the army's support BUT most senior officers came from aristocratic backgrounds & were opposed to democracy.

BUT more importantly, they feared a greater revolution/ civil war from the communists (primary concern was preventing this) so... 10th Nov, General Groener told Ebert that the army leadership would support the new government in return for Ebert resisting demands to democratise the armed forces & to also ensure prevention of a communist revolution.

Describe the impact of the Ebert-Groener Pact on the left?

critics of Ebert on the left saw the agreement as a betrayl of revolution!

Outline the short & and long term effects of the Ebert-Groener Pact?

> short-term - army support for government against extreme left.

> long-term - the military elite, no friend of democracy, is in a very strong position, almost independent of civilian control.

Describe the Spartacist/KPD reactions to the Ebert-Groener Pact? (3/6)

• 6 Nov a Spartacist demonstration in Berlin was fired on by soldiers, killing 16.

• 23-24 Dec, a sailors' revolt against the gov in Berlin was put down by the army - in protest, 3 USPD members of gov resigned.

  • Spartacists re-formed as KPD on 30th Dec.

• 6 Jan, Spartacists launched an armed revolt against the government in what became known as the January Revolution or the Spartacist Uprising - after a week of heavy fighting, it was crushed.

  • Spartacist/KPD leaders Rosa Luxemburg + Karl Liebknecht murdered in police custody.

  • KPD still survived as anti-democratic party.

Explain the Stinnes-Legien agreement?

> Legien (leader of the trade unions) met with Stinnes (leader of the industrial employers)...

> results: in return for workers' committees, an eight-hour working day & full legal recognition, trade unions would not interfere with private ownership or the free market.

Outline the short & long term effects of the Stinnes-Legien agreement?

> short-term - workers support evolutionary reforming new government & do not challenge private ownership of industry.

> long-term - industrialists resent the power given to workers & become increasingly anti-democratic.

Outline the strengths of the Weimar Constitution? (5)

> Proportional representation - enabled the smaller parties to win seats in the Reichstag. The country was divided into 35 electoral districts.

> Universal citizen suffrage - women & men were both allowed to vote on the same terms & women could also become deputies in the Reichstag/state parliaments.

> Individual rights - the constitution guranteed the 'fundamental rights & duties of German citizens'. Statements within this included 'all Germans were equal before the law' & 'personal liberty is inviolable'.

> referendums - they could be called for by the President, the Reichsrat or by people's request.

> Democratic local government - full democracy in local gov ensured larger states e.g. Prussia could not dominate Germany.

Outline why proportional representation is a weakness? (2)

1) Too many small parties - could gain representation in the Reichstag so enabled them to exploit the parliamentary system to gain publicity (problem not inherently due to system of proportional representation but exacerbated by already existing divisions).

2) Coalition governments - due to proliferation of smaller parties, no larger party was able to gain an overall majority (majority required to command the Reichstag) therefore parties had to form coalitions - many were short-lived due to frequent disagreement over policy.

Outline the weaknesses caused by the survival of undemocratic institutions (ARMY) in relation to the Weimar constitution?

• It's leaders were determined to preserve independence - officer corps of the army in the Second Empire was allowed to continue intact = military far from politically neutral - full force of military strength against the left BUT conspirators on the right often supported indirectly by the army.

• General Hans von Seeckt (appointed commander in chief 1920) believed that the army's loyalty was to a timeless Reich that was a true expression of German nationhood instead of a 'temporary' Republic.

Outline the weaknesses caused by the survival of undemocratic institutions (CIVIL SERVICE) in relation to the Weimar constitution?

under the Weimar Constitution, civil servants were guaranteed their 'well-earned rights' & their freedom of political opinion + expression as long as it didn't conflict with duty & loyalty to the state.

• majority of senior civil servants were aristocracy = very anti-democratic with their outlook.

Outline the weaknesses caused by the survival of undemocratic institutions (JUDICARY) in relation to the Weimar constitution?

Article 102 guaranteed the independence of the judges but those who had served in the Second Empire also remained at their posts - staunchly anti-democratic & monarchist.

> the penal code of the Republic stipulated that those attempting to overthrow the constitution by force should be sentenced to life imprisonment - judges harsh on the left but lenient on the right.

What was Article 48 & explain the strengths/weaknesses...

gave the President the power to rule by decree in exceptional circumstances.

> no effective safeguard as the President could dissolve the Reichstag.

> in an emergency, the President technically had more power than the Kaiser as article 48 allowed the President & Chancellor to pass any law.

What was Ebert's usage of Article 48?

> used powers 136 times.

> some of these were in times of national emergency, others were when Ebert simply wanted to override opposition in the Reichstag.

Describe the election results (seats per party) in January 1919? (7)

USPD = 22/423 seats

SPD = 165/423 seats

DDP = 75/423 seats

Z/BVP = 91/423 seats

DVP = 19/423 seats

DNVP = 44/423 seats

Others = 7/423

Describe the Jan 1919 election results in relation to the coalition parties? (2)

total number of seats = 331/423

total percentage of vote = 78%