Biology Exam

Monosomy vs trisomy?

Both of these refer to the amount of a certain chromosome is present

mono= only one

tri=three

Karyotype?

This is a form of imagery that shows the complete ordered set of chromosomes

Crossing over?

Part of meiosis where two lined up chromosomes exchange information

This is reason for variety

Genetic testing methods

Cytogenetic testing- examination of whole chromosome for abnormalities

• Amniocentesis (up=high accuracy, down=small risk of complications i.e. miscarriage)

• Chorionic villus sampling (same as above)

Molecular testing- examination of a specific region of DNA for mutations

Biochemical testing- examination of specific proteins for functionality

Mendel’s three laws

Law of segregation

• Individuals carry two alleles for each trait, the alleles get randomly separated during the creation of gametes

Law of independent assortment

• The inheritance of alleles for one trait does not effect the inheritance for another

Law of dominance

• Dominant alleles will always be shown (even over recessive ones)

Monohybrid Crosses (punnett squares)

Dihybrid crosses

like mono but with an additional trait

Dominant vs. recessive traits

Dominant traits are more likely to be expressed

Recessive traits (since they need to be in pairs to be expressed) are more rare

Genotype vs. phenotype

Genotype is both of the alleles present for a certain trait (Tt, TT, tt)

Phenotype is the how those alleles are expressed (tall, round, wrinkled)

Homozygous vs heterozygous

Homo= genotype contains two of the same allele

Hetero= genotype contains two different alleles

Allele vs Gene locus

Allele= one particular variant of a gene received from a parent

Gene locus= the specific, fixed location on the chromosome where a trait is located

P, F₁, and F₂ generations

F1= Gen. 1

F2= Gen. 2

Test cross define?

This is a fundamental genetic method used to determine the unknown genotype of an organism that displays a dominant phenotype. It works by breeding the organism in question with a homozygous recessive individual

Why is inbreeding bad?

Since you are effectively self-fertilizing (as the genotypes of family members are similar), you increase the likelihood of expressing diseases

Incomplete dominance vs. codominance

Incomplete is where both alleles are partially expressed, creating an “inbetween”

Codominance is where both alleles are fully expressed

Multiple alleles

Three or more alleles for the same trait that can occupy the same gene locus

i.e. BLOOD TYPES

Blood types

Using a punnett square is just the same as normal

A and B are both dominant, meaning they will trump O

If A and B are both present they will exhibit codominance

O can only be expressed if it is paired with another O (since they are recessive)

Sex-linked traits

These are traits that are determined by a gene located on a sex chromosome

Sex-linked crosses

Similar to a normal punnett square, except there are traits expressed above the X chromosome

Pedigree

These are maps that represent related individuals

How to find what the inheritance pattern is

4 main meiotic errors

Nondisjunction

• Chromosome fail to separate properly

Inversion

• the chromosome gets rearranged instead of splitting

Duplication

• Chromosome material gets copied incorrectly resulting in extra genetic material

Deletion

• A section of the chromosome breaks off and is lost

chromosomal disorders (trisomy & monosomy)

DNA mutations

The permanent change in genetic letter in the DNA in a cell

Sources of DNA mutation

-radiation (eg. X-rays, UV)

-chemicals (eg. carcinogens, free radicals)

-viruses (eg. HPV)

Errors during replication

Variation vs. adaptation

Variation is how there is natural differences between individuals within species (eye color)

Adaptation is a variation that proved advantageous

Continuous vs discontinuous variation

Continuous are traits that can be measured on a continuous range (i.e. weight, heigh)

Discontinuous are traits that must fit into distinct categories (eye color, blood type)

Harmful, neutral, and advantageous mutations

Harmful= Mutations that inhibit the ability for the organism to survive/reproduce

Neutral= Mutations that have no effect on the organism’s ability to survive/reproduce

Advantageous= Mutations that allow the organism to survive/reproduce better

Variation to adaptation

A variation becomes an adaptation, if the variation allows the organism to survive/reproduce better (ADVANTAGEOUS MUTATION)

Types of adaptations

Physiological

• Effects internal processes

Behavioural

• Effects behaviour

Structural

• Effects outer composition

Define Selective pressures

External agents that effect the ability for an organism to survive/reproduce

What are selective pressures that are caused by humans called & example

Anthropogenic selective pressure

• English peppered moths adapting color to black during periods of high pollution

Mimicry define

A structural adaptation in which a harmless species resembles a harmful one

Charles Darwin & main principles

Created the idea of NATURAL SELECTION

• All living things are related

• natural processes drive evolution

Evolution main principles

• individuals within a species will posses slightly different traits (variation)

• Individuals with advantageous traits will be able to survive longer and reproduce more allowing them to spread their traits more

Evidence of evolution

1. Comparative anatomy

2. Embryology & development

3. Fossil records

4. DNA/biochemical comparisons

5. Biogeography

6. Observational evidence

CEFDBO

Vestigial structures

These are structures that have lost some or all of their ancestral power

Homologous vs analogous structures

Transitional forms

Organisms that connect two distant relatives

Darwin’s finches

Charles Darwin saw that the same species of finch on the Galapagos islands had adapted slightly differently to give them an advantage in their specific environment

• inspired him to make the idea of natural selection

Natural Selection

The process by which organisms get better evolved to their environments (weak ones die out)

“SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST”

Evolutionary Fitness

The ability for an organism to pass of it’s genes to the next generation the most times

Artificial selection

The human directed selection of mating partners in organisms, meant to emphasize desired traits (i.e. dogs)

Sexual Selection

Natural selection arising through one sex’s preferance for a certain trait (i.e. dancing in birds)

Gene pool & why is bigger gene pool favourable

All the genes (including alleles), in a certain population

• a bigger gene pool means that if a disease infiltrates a species it won’t kill all of them at once since there is health variety

Stabilizing vs. Directional vs. disruptive selection

Stabilizing= intermediate variation grants greater fitness

Directional= variation toward one extreme grants greater fitness

Disruptive= variation at both extremes grants greater fitness

Genetic drift

Change in allele frequency due to random chance

Genetic bottleneck

Where a single event drastically reduces genetic variation within a population

Gene flow

The transfer of genetic variation from one population to another

Speciation define

The creation of one or more distinct species originating from one original one

Allopatric & sympatric speciation

Allo= Speciation that occurs because of geographic changes (i.e. creation of mountains or lake)

Sym= Speciation that occurs because of temporal of behavioural changes

Abrupt Speciation

Speciation possible in plants over just one generation as they have the ability to stay viable as a polyploid (two or more complete sets of chromosomes)

Autopolyploidy vs allopolyploidy

Auto= inherit all their chromosome sets from the same species

Allo= inherit their chromosomes sets from different but similar species

Major steps in human evolution

1. Bipedalism

2. Brain growth

3. Tool use

4. Language

Examples of modern human evolution

High altitude adaptations

Lactose tolerance in adults

Traditional taxonomy

The science of naming organisms based on their observable structural similarities and differences

8 levels of classification

1. Domain

2. Kingdom

3. Phylum

4. Class

5. Order

6. Family

7. Genus

8. Species

Doctor

Katy

Perry

Collects

Olives

For

Greek

Salad

3 domains of life

Eukaryotic, Bacteria, Archaea

Binomial nomenclature

Two part naming system that involves Genus and Species, CAPITALIZE FIRST ONE, both italicized or underlined

Genus species

Why is latin used in naming?

Since latin is a “dead” language it provides linguistic stability and political neutrality

Why are viruses on considered in this classification?

Viruses are not included in this classification as they are not considered living, since they can’t reproduce on their own and lack metabolic functions

Prokaryotes vs eukaryotes

Pro= are simpler, have no organelles and no nucleus, UNICELLULAR

Eu= complex, have organelles and nucleus, (mostly) MULTICELLULAR

Endosymbiotic theory

A theory about how eukaryotic cells came to be

• millions of years ago a larger prokaryotic cell “ate” many another prokaryotic cells leading to organelles

Why having a nucleus is beneficial

Allows for more complex cell functions

define biodiversity

the variety of all living things (from genes to ecosystems)

Threats to biodiversity

• Climate change

• Pollution

• Habitat destruction

• Overexploitation
  Etc…

Dichotomous key & importance

A way of identifying organisms based on a series of binary questions

• They offer a standardized, repeatable method to identify similar-looking specimens without relying on guesswork.

UNDERSTAND HOW TO BUILD A DICHOTOMOUS KEY

Cultivating bacteria lab

Key aspects are documentation, incubator and agar (jelly-like substance that provides solid food for the bacteria)

AMOCTOBSO

1. Atom

2. Molecule

3. Organelle

4. Cell

5. Tissue

6. Organ

7. Body system

8. Organism

Types of tissue

• 
  

• Epithelial

  • Covers body surfaces, for protection, absorption and secretion

• Connective

  • Supports, binds and protects, includes bone, blood, adipose, and cartilage

• Muscle

  • Enables movement; 3 types

  • skeletal (voluntary)

  • cardiac (heart)

  • smooth (involuntary)

• Nervous

  • Transmits electrical signals, made of neurons and supporting cells (neuroglia)

Homeostasis define

A process by which organisms regulate their internal temperatures

Positive feedback loop

Ex. Child birth- Amplifies responses

Diffusion define

When molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration through gas or liquid

Osmosis define

The movement of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration (SAME AS DIFFUSION JS THROUGH SEMI-P.. and only water molecules)

Hypertonic & Hypotonic solutions

Hypertonic solutions have a higher concentration of solutes than the cell, causing the cell to shrink

Hypotonic Solutions have a lower concentration of solutes than the cell, causing the cell to swell

Key respiratory features

• Epiglottis

  • valve that protects airways during swallowing

• Larynx

  • voice box

• Trachea

  • Tube that connects larynx to bronchi

• Lung

  • you know this one

• Bronchi/Bronchus

  • branch out into bronchioli

• Bronchioli/Bronchiole

  • branch out into alveoli

• Alveoli/Alveolus

  • facilitate gas exchange

    • DIFFUSION IS RESPONSIBLE FOR SWAPPING OXYGEN RICH WITH OXYGEN POOR OXYGEN IN THE BLOODSTREAM

• Diaphragm

  • muscle that contracts and relaxes to cause breathing

Lung Capacity therminology

Tidal volume - normal breathing

Vital capacity - Max air moved

Residual Volume - air remaining after max exhalation

Breathing issues and causes

Asthma= inflammation and narrowing of airways in lungs

Pulmonary embolisms= sudden blockage of an artery in the lungs

BE ABLE TO LABEL HEART parts

BE ABLE TO LABEL HEART flow of blood

BE ABLE TO LABEL valves

Dif types of blood vessels

Arteries= away from heart

Veins= to heart

Capillaries= (smallest) connect arteries and veins

Blood components

55% Plasma

40-45% Red blood cells

-1% Platelets

-1% White blood cells

Cardiac Cycle

Systole= Contraction

Diastole= Relaxation

Open vs. closed circulatory system & examples

Open - blood pumped into body cavities, more energy efficient, bathing organs

Closed - blood confined to vessels, allowing higher pressure and faster nutrient transport

Enzymes role & examples

Breaking down nutrients in the digestive system

• Main enzymes are; Amylase, Lipase,Protease

GI tract vs. digestive system

GI is a long tube that runs all the way from the mouth to the anus

DS encompasses all the organs that are involved in the process of digestion

Ingestion

1. Tongue and palate press food into a bolus

2. Tongue and throat guide bolus past the epiglottis and to the esophagus

3. Peristalsis pushes bolus to the stomach

*radial contraction of muscles down the esophagus

4. Food goes into the stomach

5. As food continues, it passes through 2 sphincters

   1. Upper esophageal sphincter (Barrier to air) 

   2. Lower esophageal sphincter (Barrier to acid)

*muscles that prevent backflow

Digestion

Mechanical digestion - Mechanical processes that break down food before chemical digestion - chewing

Chemical digestion - Chemically breaking down nutrients into molecules the body can absorb -mouth, stomach, small intestine

Absorption in small intestine

Responsible for absorbing most nutrients

Lined with Villi - finger-like projections

Microvilli - micro-projections of the Villi

Absorption in large intestine

After entering, waste is called feces

Absorbs water and minerals, causes remainder to clump and solidify

Elimination

Process of removing undigested food from the body

Rectum - short length of the colon, stored for defecation

When rectal wall stretches, triggers urge to eliminate

Digestive system organs

• Mouth

• Pharynx

  • Where food is routed away from air way

• Esophagus

  • Transportation tube to stomach

• Stomach

• Small intestine

• Large intestine

• Rectum

Accessory organs

• Salivary glands

  • Moistens and dissolves food

  • Contains carbohydrase

  • Detect nutrients in the food, triggering hormonal responses (ie. appetite control

• Liver

  • Creates bile

• Gallbladder

  • Stores bile

• Pancreas

  • manages blood sugar levels

Bird & ruminant digestive system

Humans only have one stomach & teeth

Birds have 2 stomach chambers - Have a gizzard - a stomach chamber that contains pebbles that mechanically break down food

Ruminants have 4 stomach chambers

Digestive diseases

• Celiac disease

  • Allergy to gluten

• Appendicitis

  • When the appendix suddenly bursts

• Diverticulitis

  • Due to high pressure in the colon creates pouches in the rectum lining

Types of Meristematic tissue

• Apical Meristems

  • responsible for lengthening

• Lateral Meristems

  • responsible for widening

• Intercalary

  • responsible for rapid regrowth after cutting

Specialized plant tissue

• Dermal

  • Outer protective layer

• Ground

  • interior bulk (photosynthesis, storage, support)

• Vascular

  • Special tubes for plant respiration

Leaf anatomy

• Palisade Mesophyll

  • densely packed with chloroplasts for max light absorption

• Spongy Mesophyll

  • loose arrangement for gas diffusion

• Stomata

  • Pores regulated by guard cells to balance gas exchange and water loss (act as breathing “holes” collecting CO2