A-Level American History - LBJ and the Great Society

What did President Johnson outline in a May 1964 speech?

He offered a new version of the American Dream, in which the federal government would engineer a Great Society characterised by:

- Racial equality

- The end of poverty

- Educational reform

- Better housing and the end of urban decay

- Peace with other nations

How could Johnson able to persuade Congress with his agenda?

He held a 75% per cent approval rate that was owed to Kennedy's death and the feeling that the nation should rally about his chosen successor.

What did Johnson do in January 1964 and what legislation did he persuade Congress to pass?

- In Jan 1964, he declared a 'unconditional war on poverty'.

- He persuaded Congress to pass an Economic Opportunity Act (EOA), that established an Office of Economic Opportunity. He used the word 'opportunity' to pre-empt conservative attacks & not be seen as a welfare measure.

- The poor were not to be given handouts & given opportunity to take responsibility for their lives.

What progress did the EOA achieve by Feb 1965?

Johnson informed the Congress of OEO progress:

- 44 states had anti-poverty programmes, with six more states to follow.

- 53 Job Corps centres providing job training were receiving thousands of applications daily.

- members of 25,000 families on welfare were receiving work training.

- 35,000 college students were on work-study programmes, under which poorer students could earn federal funding through part-time work.

- 35,000 adults were learning to read and write and 90,000 adults were enrolled in basic education programmes.

- Neighbourhood Youth Corps in 49 cities and eleven rural communities were giving young people jobs to help them stay in education or receive training.

- 8000 volunteers in Service to America (VISTA) were assisting groups such as nearly children, Native Americans and migratory workers.

- Over 4 million were receiving AFDC benefits (Aid to Families with Dependent Children).

- Loans were being given for small businesses and rural development ($17 million would be distributed in rural loans in 1968).

Why did President Johnson create Medicare and Medicaid?

- Elderly people constituted a large part of America's poor, partly because health care was expensive.

- Democrats has long advocated for federal support for health care and were able to pass the legislation with Democrat majorities in both houses with Johnson's persuasion.

- Congress established Medicare and Medicaid in the Social Security Act of 1965.

What impact did the Social Security Act of 1965 have?

- Johnson rightly boasted he produced 'a healthcare revolution'.

- Medicare and Medicaid helped 19 million Americans in 1966 and within a decade Medicare was so popular that no president dared opposite it least he alienate the 'grey vote'.

What were the problems with Medicare and Medicaid?

- There were gaps in coverage, for example, spectacles.

- Medicare and Medicaid proved far more expensive than the Johnson administration anticipated, mostly because the legislation allowed hospitals and doctors to set fees. Medicaid increased the amount spent by the federal and state governments on healthcare for poorer citizens from $1.3 billion in 1965 to over $2 billion in 1966, and by 1990 Medicare proved eight times more expensive than estimated in 1966.

- Although one-fifth of the population benefited from Medicaid and Medicare by 1976, the problem of reasonably priced care for all Americans remained.

What did Johnson declared about poverty and education?

- In 1964, Johnson declared 'nothing matters more to the future of our country' than education. He highlighted the problems:

- 54 million Americans had never finished high school.

- 8 million had under five years of schooling.

- 100,000 high-school graduates with proven ability could not afford to enter college.

- Schools were overcrowded, run down and short of good teachers.

What did Johnson do to solve the problems of education in America?

- He persuaded Congress to double federal expenditure on education to $8 billion. In 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) and the Higher Education Act (HEA) channelled the money towards the poorest states and the poorest children.

By the end of Johnson's presidency:

- Over 13 million children had benefitted from federal aid to education.

- A higher percentage achieved a high school diploma.

- There was no teacher shortage.

- A college education was more accessible (by 170, 25% of college students received some financial aid from the HEA).

Did Johnson win the War on Poverty?

- 19 Million Americans benefited from Medicare and Medicaid in 1966.

- Over 13 million children and young people benefited from Johnson's education legislation.

- A million children benefitted from his Head Start programme and 50,000 students from his Upward Bound programme.

- The percentage of the American population in poverty fell from 17% in 1965 to 11% in the early 1970s.

- the 3.9% unemployment rate in 1967 was a 13-year low.

- the minimum wage rose by 35 cents.

- Federal expenditure on the issues face by poor people rose from $13 billion in 1963 and to $20 billion in 1966.

- Johnson failed to eradicate poverty. One-third of non-white families still lived below the poverty line, with infant morality and unemployment rates nearly twice those of white people.

Why did the Great Society decline?

- Between 1965 and 1973, $15.5 billion was spent on the Great Society, $120 billion on Vietnam.

- The war precipitated inflation and tax rises that made the great Socitey unpopular. Congress made Johnson agree to cuts in them.

- Some criticised the Great Society as an unrealistic dream (Nixon desicribed in as a 'cruel hoax). Taxpayers were never going to grant unlimited funds to help the poor.

- There were unforseen, unpopular consequences, especially when programmes to help the urban poor were hijacked by black radicals.

What was the American economy like in 1964?

- Johnson boasted around 43 months of unbroken business expansion (the longest such period since the Second World War), limited inflation, low unemployment and pleasing GNP growth.

What was the American economy like in 1965?

- There were signs the economy was overheating. In August, Johnson tried to persuade labour and industry to prevent inflation by following wage and price guidlines, and steel industry workers adn bosses co-operated.

- In Decemebr, he approved an interest rate rise designed to cool the economy down.

What was the American economy like in 1966?

Johnson claimed that Americans were 'a people who live in abundance unmatched on this globe'. He pointed that in the past five years:

- after-tax wages has risen by 35%

- Corporate earnings had risen by over 65%

- Farm income had risen by near 40%

- Unemployment was at a 13-year low.

He assured Americans that the nation could afford both the Great Society and the Vietnam War, but many were doubtful, because inflation was at it's highest for ten years.

What was the Economy like in 1967?

- The prospective budget deficit was over $10 Billion finally persuaded Johnson to seek the tax increase his advisor urged.

- In his Jan 1967 Budget speech, he told Americans that there has been a 4.5% rise in consumer prices in the past 18 months and that interest rates were rising. He added there could be a slowdown in capital investment, less residental construction, flat-lining industrial production, depressed retail sales and lower corporate profit, and that the GNP's performance in the first quarter of 1967 was the worst since the 1960 recession.

- During the summer and autumn, there was a 4.5% increase in the GNP and a fall in unemployment to 3.8%, but also a growing federal budget deficit, inflation and rising consumer prices. In Oct, 60% of Americans saw the high coast of living as their number one problem (only 5% said Vietnam). As Johnson admitted,'uncertainity hangs over our economy'.

What the economy like in 1968?

By early 1968, the nation's economic problems were great:

- The 1968 federal budget deficit was an estimated $19.8 billion.

- Although the US had a trade deficit in seventeen of the previous eighteen years, the 1967 trade deficit of nearly $4 billion was three times that of 1966.

- America's economic problems were frightening financial markets everywhere. The trade deficit was made up by sending gold abroad and by 1965 U.S. gold supplies has decreased by 40% since 1945. Reserves dropped to $12.4 billion (the lowest since 1937) and the dollar was greatly weakened.

When were the Harlem Riots and what caused them? (6, 2D)

- 1964 Summer

- shooting of black youth suspected of criminal activity

- high temps

- lack of change after civil rights act 1964

- ghetto problems: unemployment, low incomes etc

- housing discrimination in Harlem

What were the outcomes of the Harlem riots? (2, 1D)

- Project Uplift set up 1965, experimental anti-poverty programme

- intended to prevent recurring riots as part of the Great Society

- thousands of young people were employed in a variety of jobs, giving them skills to break out of poverty

When were the Watts Riots, LA and what caused them? (5, 1D, 1S)

- 1965

- caused by police attack on pregnant woman

- ghetto conditions, housing discrimination, brutality also a an issue

- constant issues between police and blacks

- male unemployment 34%, 6 times higher than rest of city

- most serious of all race riots in this period

What were the outcomes of the Watts Riots? (6, 4S)

- 6 days, $200 million damages. 4000 arrests and 34 deaths

- LA not usually associated with ghetto issues, shocking

- black hostility towards whites in the north shown

- 14,000 troops needed to restore order

- subsequent white backlash, whites became disillusioned with CRM.

- Johnson ordered Kerner commission to investigate ghetto riot cases

When were the Chicago riots and what caused them? (5, 1D)

- 1966

- high temps

- SCLC's Chicago Freedom Movement was unsuccessful

- catalyst was arrests of some black youths who were using a fire hydrant to cool off

- march was a protest against desegregated housing areas, police didnt protect blacks attacked by whites

What were the outcomes of the Chicago riots? (5)

- MLK campaign not very successful

- more white backlash

- whites perceived blacks as troublemakers, especially after marchers entered white neighbourhoods

- limited press coverage, unlike Selma, therefore limited success

- many blacks turned to black power out of frustration

When was the Detroit riot and what caused it? (2, 1D)

- 1967

- triggered by police raid on a nightclub

What were the outcomes of the Detroit riot? (2, 3S)

- 40 deaths, 2000 arrests, 5000 made homeless- Johnson had to send in federal troops to calm the situation

When were the Race Riots and what caused them? (3, 2D)

- 1968

- caused by assassination of MLK 4 April 1968

- ghetto issues also a background cause

What were the outcomes of the race riots? (5, 6S)

- riots in 100 cities, 46 deaths, 3500 injuries and 27,000 arrests

- 7 days long, over $100 million damages

- Congress passed a weak civil rights act, which aimed to stop housing discrimination

- rioting made a federal crime, pleased white conservatives

- MLK's death meant CRM lost the man who could command respect from whites and had worked hard to unify blacks under non-violence

What were the reasons for the riots in general? (8, 4D, 2S)

- Johnson's civil rights legislation 1964 and 1965 was significant in the south, but not the north

- Ghetto problems (unemployment. education and housing nequality)

- King said Watts riots were economic

- Hot summers

- copycat element

- racist police

- Johnson blamed the riots on poverty and despair

- percentage of blacks in poverty 28 to 31% from 1959=65

- Assassination of MLK 1968 triggered riots in 100 cities

- Johnson had raised hopes with Great Society promises

What was the significance of the Kerner Commission in regard to the riots? (5, 2D, 1S)

- Kerner commission set up by Johnson 1967-8 to investigate what caused the riots, with Johnson believing poverty was the main issue

- The Commission concluded though that white racism was the main cause

- police practices were reason 1 - 40% involved in the riots alleged racism or abuse from police

- Feb 1968, Commission concluded: 'our nation is moving towards two societies, one black, and one white

- separate and unequal'. The commission cited Plessy v Ferguson in the report

What were the attitudes of whites towards blacks after the riots? (4)

- Whites did not want to pay higher taxes to go towards improving ghetto conditions

- whites did not want suburbs integrated

- whites perceived blacks as 'seeking handouts'

- blacks increasingly perceived whites as unsympathetic

What legislation did Johnson pass to end urban decay? (4, 4D, 1S)

- 1964 Urban mass transportation act, provided financial aid for urban public transport- 1964 Wilderness protection act, barred commercial use of 9.1 million acres of forest- 1965 Air and Water Quality Act - made states set quality standards and set limits for pollution- 1965 Highway Beautification Act - controlled billboards and encouraged scenic roadside development

What evidence is there suggesting Johnson won the War on Poverty? (3, 2D, 3S)

- by 1976, Medicare and Medicaid were providing 20% of the country with healthcare

- 1959 to 1968, number of poor families dropped from 40 to 25 million, and minimum wage rose by 35 cents

- 1 million children benefited from the Headstart Programme

How far was Johnson's great society an extension of Kennedy's New Frontier?

- 1965 elementary and secondary school act was a continuation of Kennedy's 1961 attempt to get financial aid to elementary and secondary education, a bill that was rejected

- Johnson's 1965 Social security act, encompassing Medicaid, was a continuation of JFK's 1963 Medicare bill to develop senior healthcare plans, rejected by congress

- Johnson's 1965 Omnibus Housing Act built on JFK's 1961 act of the same name, and also established the department of urban development and housing, Kennedy tried something similar and was repeatedly rejected

- Johnson's 1964 civil rights bill was proposed by Kennedy in 1963, and stuck in congress when he was assassinated

What were the causes in passing the Civil Rights in Congress?

It passed, despite considerable opposition in Congress:

- Black activists drew the attention of Congress and the nation to injustices.

- The NAACP, labour unions and churches lobbied Congress incessantly.

- Important congressional leaders such as Hubart Humphrey worked hard on the bill.

- John devoted much time, energy, and political capital in ensuring the bill's passage. He made emotive appeals to national traditions and ideals and insisted that the bet way to honour the slain president was to pass his bill.

- By Jan 1964, 68% of Americans favoured the bill. Congress could not affrord to ignore the public opinion.

What did the Civil Rights Act (1964) enact?

The 1964 Civil Rights Act gave the federal fovernment the legal tools to end de jure segregation in the South. It prohibted decrimination in public places, furthered school desgregation and established an Equal Employment Comission.

- However, many North African- Americans still suffered from poverty and discrimination and there were riots in black ghettos of many East Coast cities in the weeks following the Acts's passage.

- Did little to ensure Southern black voting rights.

Why did the Voting Right Act (1965) pass?

It passed because:

- King's Selma campaign had drawn attention to the continuing disfranchisement of black Sourtherners.

- The US claimed to be the leader of the free world and Commie propaganda emphasised the inequality demonstrated at Selma.

- Johnson used his famous powers of perusasion, as in his impressive speech to congress in March 1965.

- The Voting Rights Act disallowed literacy tests and question on state consititution, and replaced racist Southern white registars with federal registrars.