AP Euro Terms

Secularism

Focus on non-religious (worldly) topics, Emphasis on politics, art, human life instead of religion

Humanism

Focus on human potential and classical (Greek/Roman) learning, Studied literature, history, and rhetoric

Italian Renaissance

Began in Italy (city-states like Florence), Wealth from trade funded art and learning, Emphasized classical revival and humanism

Northern Renaissance

Happened in Northern Europe, More focused on religion + everyday life, Used printing press to spread ideas

New Monarchies

Centralized power under monarchs, Reduced power of nobles and feudal systems, Created stronger armies and bureaucracies, Increased taxes and state control

Ottoman Empire Impact

Controlled key trade routes between Europe and Asia, Pressured Eastern Europe militarily, Encouraged European exploration of sea routes to Asia

Machiavelli

Said rulers should do whatever is necessary to stay in power, Politics separate from religion/morality, wrote the Prince

Hobbes

Believed in strong absolute government to avoid chaos, Humans are naturally selfish, "...and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short," from Leviathian.

Locke

People have natural rights (life, liberty, property), Government should protect rights and can be overthrown

Charles V

Ruler of large Habsburg empire, Tried to maintain unity in HRE, Faced Protestant Reformation conflicts

Peace of Augsburg

Allowed rulers to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism

Treaty of Westphalia

Ended 30 Years’ War, Recognized state sovereignty, Added Calvinism as legal religion

Reformation Causes

Kings opposed papal authority, Church wealth and taxes angered people, Desire for control of church land/money, Corruption in the Catholic Church, Indulgences and need for reform, 95 Theses

Martin Luther

Salvation by faith alone, Bible is authority, Opposed Church practices, 95 Theses, started Protestantism/Reformation

John Calvin

Predestination, Strict moral discipline, Spread Calvinism

Ignatius Loyola

Founded Jesuits, Strengthened Catholic Church, Focus on education and discipline

Erasmus

Wanted reform within the Church, Promoted education and criticized corruption

Habsburgs

Powerful royal family in Europe, controlled Spain, Austria, HRE territories

30 Years’ War

Religious + political war in Europe, Devastated Germany, Ended with Peace of Westphalia

Schmalkaldic League

Alliance of Protestant German princes, Opposed Holy Roman Emperor

Spanish Inquisition

Church court to find and punish heresy, Used in Spain to enforce Catholicism

Anabaptists

Believed in adult baptism only, Rejected state church

French Civil War

Conflicts between Catholics and Huguenots, Led to Edict of Nantes

Council of Trent

Catholic Church reform meeting, Reaffirmed Catholic doctrines, Reformed church abuses

Huguenots

French Protestants (Calvinists), Faced persecution in France

Opening of the Atlantic

Shifted trade from Mediterranean to Atlantic, Increased global trade and exploration, Boosted European economies

Goods Brought to Europe

Sugar, tobacco, gold, silver, spices, Raw materials from colonies

Commercial Revolution

Expansion of trade, banking, and capitalism, Growth of global markets and joint-stock companies

Mercantilism

Wealth = gold & silver, Goal: export more than import, Government controls economy to strengthen the state

Scientific Revolution

Shift to observation, experimentation, and scientific reasoning, Challenged old beliefs

Francis Bacon

scientific method, observation

Copernicus

heliocentric theory

Kepler

planetary motion laws

Galileo

telescope, supported heliocentrism

Newton

gravity, laws of motion

Descartes

rationalism, use of reason

Impact of Scientific Revolution

Emphasis on reason and logic, Challenged Church authority, Science separated from religion, Increased belief in science and progress, Led to Enlightenment and modern science

Decline in Central Europe (17th–18th c.)

Holy Roman Empire

Poland

Spain

Why: internal weakness, lack of central power, economic decline, and political fragmentation

Rise in Central Europe

Austria (Habsburgs)

Prussia

Russia

Why: strong armies, centralized governments, efficient taxation, expansion

English Civil War

Conflict between king and Parliament, Power struggle over authority, Tensions between Anglicans, Puritans, others

Glorious Revolution Effects

Parliament becomes dominant, Constitutional monarchy established, Greater protection of rights, Reduced absolute monarchy

Stuarts

Royal family ruling England, Conflicts with Parliament

Whigs

Supported Parliament, Wanted limits on monarchy

Tories

Supported monarchy, More conservative

Politique

Prioritized national unity over religion

Henry IV

Ended religious wars, Edict of Nantes

Richelieu

Strengthened royal power, Weakened nobles and Huguenots

Mazarin

Continued centralization, Maintained royal authority

Fronde

Noble revolts against monarchy, Failed → strengthened absolutism

Louis XIV

Absolute monarchy, Centralized power at Versailles

Colbert

Mercantilism, Strengthened economy and trade

Peace of Augsburg

Rulers choose religion, Lutheranism + Catholicism

Treaty of Westphalia

Ended religious wars, Sovereignty of states, Added Calvinism

Treaty of Utrecht

Balance of power, Prevented France-Spain union, Increased British power

18th Century Global Economy

Empires, mercantilism, Global trade, slavery, capitalism, Middle class grows, slavery expands, wars over colonies

Balance of Power

Countries form alliances to prevent any one from dominating Europe

Enlightenment

Reason + questioning authority, Rights, equality, better government, Applied ideas of the Scientific Revolution to society

Old Regime

Absolute monarchy, Agriculture, unfair taxes, 3 estates, inequality, Powerful Roman Catholic Church

Causes of French Revolution

Absolute monarchy (Louis XVI), Debt, taxes, food crisis, 3 estates inequality, Enlightenment ideas

Reasins for and against radicalism

For: War, crisis, fear, failed reforms

Against: Terror, executions, desire for stability

Liberty, equality, fraternity

Freedom from oppression; equal rights under the law; unity and solidarity among citizens

Napoleon contributions to French Rev.

Napoleonic Code, equality before law, centralized government, spread revolutionary ideas

Continental System

Block trade in Continental Europe with Britain (failed)

Realpolitik

Politics based on practical goals, not ideals, Focus on power, results, and strategy, Often uses war, diplomacy, and manipulation

William Harvey

Scientist during the Scientific Revolution, Discovered circulation of blood in the human body, Showed the heart acts as a pump, Used observation and experimentation → supported scientific method

Concert of Europe

Purpose: Peace, balance, stop revolutions, Methods: Alliances, meetings, intervention

Liberalism

Rooted in Enlightenment ideas, supports individual rights and freedoms, limited government and constitutional rule, free markets

Conservatism

Values tradition, order, stability, monarchy, church authority, hierarchy, slow and gradual change (Ex: Metternich)

Republicanism

Supports a republic with no monarch, elected representatives and citizens

Socialism

From Industrial Revolution, focused on reducing inequality from capitalism, thinks wealth should be evenly distributed, wants collective resources to the government

Humanitarianism

Focus on improving human welfare and reducing suffering, reforms like ending slavery, improving prison conditions, better labor conditions

Romanticism

Emphasizes emotion, imagination, nature, individualism, creativity, art, and nationalism, instead of reason

Revolutions of 1830

In France, Belgium, Poland/Italy, showed revolutionary ideas from French Revolution were still alive, sparked by dissatisfaction with conservative rule.

Louis Philippe

Came to power after July Revolution of 1830, “Citizen King”, more liberal but only wealthy could vote, overthrown in 1848 due to growing unrest

Reform Bill of 1832

Expanded more voting rights to middle class, eliminated “rotten boroughs”, increased representation, avoided revolution by peaceful reform

Revolutions of 1848

Widespread revolutions across France, German states, Austria, Italy, caused by economic hardship and demand for liberal reforms. There were temporary overthrows, but most revolutions ultimately failed.

Cavour

Used diplomacy and alliances to unify Italy, worked with France, showed realpolitik approach

Napoleon III

Came to power partly through democracy, then became authoritarian, mixed liberal reforms with strong centralized control, promoted economic growth and stability

Bismarck

Unified Germany under Prussian leadership through war, diplomacy, manipulation, master of realpolitik

Marx

Responded directly to failed 1848 Revolutions, argued they failed because of class conflict, reflected industrial inequality, co-wrote The Communist Manifesto

Crimean War

Exposed weaknesses in Concert of Europe system, showed that former allies could become rivals, decline of unity

Alexander II

Strengthened using reforms to stabilize and modernize Russia, emancipated Serfs, reformed military and government

Franz Joseph

Maintained multi-ethnic empire in Liechtenstein through centralized authority, relied on military control to suppress nationalist movements, preserved unity

Mutsuhito

Modernized Japan, centralized power under emperor, abolished feudalism, built industrial economy and national identity

19th Century Industrialization effects

Rise of working class, universal male suffrage and political reform, labor reforms, agriculture changed to industry, capitalism, increased production and global trade, socialism,

Economic philosophy of Industrial Capitalism

Free markets, competition, limited government interference, maximize profit, supply and demand, expansion, laissez-faire

Adam Smith

Founder of classical economics, invisible hand, supported laissez faire, free markets, competition, free trade, opposed mercantilism

David Ricardo

Free trade, comparative advantage: each country specializes in goods

Thomas Malthus

Argued that population grows faster than food supply, overpopulation would lead to poverty and famine

Anti-Corn Law League

British group to repeal Corn Laws, wanted no tariffs on imported grain, are trade, was successful (Corn Laws repealed in 1846)

Factory Act of 1833

Limited child labor, required education for children, created factory inspectors for safety and following the rules

Reform Bill of 1832

Expanded voting rights in Britain, got rid of “rotten boroughs”, gave middle class (bourgeoisie) more political power

Chartism

Working class movement, wanted political reforms, universal male suffrage, secret ballot, etc

Glorious Revolution (1688)

Fear of a Catholic monarchy under James II, so Parliament invited William and Mary to take over the throne. Peaceful transfer of power, no violence.

French Revolution (1789-1799)

Major revolution where Old Regime, Louis XVI, is overthrown and replaced with ideas of rights, equality, and popular sovereignty.

Russian Revolution

1917 Revolution, overthrew the tsar and created a communist state. Led by the Bolsheviks and Vladimir Lenin, and ended centuries of autocratic rule in Russia. Caused by poverty, WW1 failures, autocratic rule, and huge gap between rich and poor.

Northern Humanism

Humanism applied to Christian reform (focus on fixing the Church).

Patrons

Rich families/church funded artists, allowed Renaissance art & ideas to flourish.

Realism

In art, where people look natural (accurate anatomy, emotion)

Perspective

In art, 3D depth on flat surface