Terms – AP English Language and Composition

Allegory

A device using characters or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction alongside the literal meaning. for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom.

Alliteration

The repetition of initial consonant sounds in neighboring words to reinforce meaning or create a musical sound.

Allusion

A reference to something commonly known, such as an event, book, or myth, which can have multiple layers.Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical.

Ambiguity

The presence of multiple meanings in a word, phrase, sentence, or passage, whether intentional or unintentional.

Analogy

A comparison between two different things that explains something unfamiliar by relating it to something familiar.

Antecedent

The word, phrase, or clause that a pronoun refers to in a sentence.

Antithesis

The contrast or opposition of ideas; the direct opposite.

Aphorism

A concise statement of known authorship expressing a general truth or moral principle.

Apostrophe

A figure of speech addressing an absent or imaginary person or personified abstraction. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. E.x. “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: /  England hath need of thee.”

Atmosphere

The emotional mood created by a literary work, influenced by setting and descriptive choices. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events

Caricature

A verbal description that exaggerates or distorts a person's distinctive features for comic effect.

Clause

A grammatical unit containing a subject and a verb; can be independent or dependent.

Colloquialism

The use of informal language or slang in speech or writing, giving a conversational tone.

Conceit

An extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects.

Connotation

The implied or associative meaning of a word, beyond its literal definition.

Denotation

The strict, literal dictionary definition of a word, devoid of emotional associations.

Diction

The writer's choice of words, which affects clarity, correctness, and effectiveness.

Didactic

Language intended to teach or instruct, especially regarding moral or ethical principles.

Euphemism

A more agreeable or less offensive substitute for an unpleasant word or concept.

Extended Metaphor

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently throughout a work.

Figurative Language

Writing that is not meant to be taken literally, often used to create vivid imagery.

Figure of Speech

A device used to produce figurative language, including metaphor, simile, and irony.

Generic Conventions

Traditions that define each genre, helping to differentiate between types of writing.

Genre

The major category into which a literary work fits, such as prose, poetry, or drama.

Homily

A serious talk or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice, often resembling a sermon.

Hyperbole

Deliberate exaggeration for comic or serious effect.

Imagery

Sensory details or figurative language that evoke emotion or represent abstractions.

Inference

A reasonable conclusion drawn from presented information.

Invective

Emotionally violent verbal denunciation using strong, abusive language.

Irony

The contrast between what is stated and what is really meant, often creating humor or poignancy.

Litotes

A form of understatement that affirms a point by denying its opposite.

Loose Sentence

A sentence where the main idea comes first, followed by dependent elements.

Metaphor

An implied comparison between seemingly unlike things, enhancing vividness and meaning.

Metonymy

A figure of speech where one term is substituted for another closely associated with it.

Mood

The prevailing emotional aura of a work, influenced by setting, tone, and events.

Narrative

The telling of a story or account of events.

Onomatopoeia

A figure of speech imitating natural sounds through words.

Oxymoron

A figure of speech that combines contradictory terms to suggest a paradox.

Paradox

A statement that seems self-contradictory but reveals a truth upon closer inspection.

Parallelism

The grammatical framing of words or phrases to create structural similarity.

Anaphora

A subtype of parallelism involving the repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive lines.

Parody

A work that imitates another's style for comic effect or ridicule.

Pedantic

Describing language that is overly scholarly or bookish.

Periodic Sentence

A sentence that presents its central meaning at the end, preceded by dependent clauses.

Personification

A figure of speech attributing human qualities to non-human entities.

Point of View

The perspective from which a story is told, including first and third person.

Prose

A major genre division encompassing fiction and nonfiction.

Repetition

The duplication of any element of language for emphasis or effect.

Rhetoric

The principles governing effective and persuasive writing.

Rhetorical Modes

This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. The  four most common rhetorical modes (often referred to as “modes of discourse”) are as follows:  

Exposition: Explains and analyzes information, presenting an idea with relevant evidence and discussion. Common in AP language exam essays.

Argumentation: Proves the validity of an idea through sound reasoning and discussion. Persuasive writing aims to urge action.

Description: Recreates or visually presents a person, place, event, or action, engaging the senses. Can be objective or emotional.

Narration: Tells a story or recounts events, often using descriptive writing techniques.

Sarcasm

From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,” involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule  someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic (that is, intended to  ridicule). When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.

Satire

This is a style of writing that targets human vices, follies, or social institutions for reform or ridicule. It employs devices such as irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. Good —- is often humorous and thought-provoking, offering insights into the human condition. Notable modern satirists include Joseph Heller and Kurt Vonnegut.

semantics

The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their  connotations, and their relation to one another.  

Style

 The consideration of this has two purposes:  

Author's Choices: encompasses an author's unique blend of diction, syntax, figurative language, and literary devices, allowing for recognition and evaluation of their work. We can analyze and describe an author’s personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author’s purpose

Classification and Comparison: aids in grouping authors and comparing them, reflecting historical periods or literary movements (e.g., Renaissance, Romanticism).

Subject Complement

The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it (the predicate nominative) or (2) describing it (the  predicate adjective). These are defined below:  

(1) the predicate nominative – a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the  predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence.  

Example: Julia Roberts is a movie star.  

movie star = predicate nominative, as it renames the subject, Julia Roberts  

(2) the predicate adjective -- an adjective, a group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb.  It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject.  

Example: Warren remained optimistic.  

 optimistic = predicate adjective, as it modifies the subject, Warren 

subordinate clause

Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or  modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete  thought. Also called a dependent clause, the subordinate clause depends on a main clause (or independent clause) to  complete its meaning. Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these clauses. For example: although,  because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon as, while, who, when, where, how and that.  

Example: Yellowstone is a national park in the West that is known for its geysers.  

underlined phrase = subordinate clause  

syllogism

From the Greek for “reckoning together,” a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or syllogistic logic) is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called “major” and the second called “minor”) that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows:  

 major premise: All men are mortal.  

 minor premise: Socrates (Greek philosopher) is a man.  

 conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal.  

 A syllogism’s conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific idea  first (“Socrates”) and the general second (“all men”). 

symbol/symbolism

Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something  concrete -- such as an object, action, character, or scene – that represents something more abstract. However, symbols and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies symbols into three categories:  

(1) natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to symbolize ideas commonly associated with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning).  

(2) conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for  pirates).  

(3) literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are more generally recognized. However, a work’s symbols may be more complicated, as is the jungle in Heart of Darkness.  On the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction (idea over action) an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in  representing that abstraction. 

synecdoche

a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole or, occasionally, the whole is used to  represent a part. Examples: To refer to a boat as a “sail”; to refer to a car as “wheels”; to refer to the violins, violas, etc.  in an orchestra as “the strings.” **Different than metonymy, in which one thing is represented by another thing that is  commonly physically associated with it (but is not necessarily a part of it), i.e., referring to a monarch as “the crown” or  the President as “The White House.” 

synesthesia

 when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another. Ex: The sight of red ants makes  you itchy. In literature, synesthesia refers to the practice of associating two or more different senses in the same image.  Red Hot Chili Peppers’ song title,“Taste the Pain,” is an example.

syntax

The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to diction, but you can  differentiate them by thinking of syntax as groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words. In the multiple choice section of the AP exam, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In the essay  section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.  

theme

The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually theme is unstated in fictional works, but in  nonfiction, the theme may be directly state, especially in expository or argumentative writing.  

thesis

 In expository writing, the statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author’s  opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively,  and thoroughly a writer has proven the ——.  

tone

Similar to mood, tone describes the author’s attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. Tone is easier to determine  in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in  identifying an author’s tone. Some words describing tone are playful, ornate (complicated), sardonic (cynical), somber, etc.

transition

A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository and  argumentative writing, transitions effectively signal a shift from one idea to another. A few commonly used transitional  words or phrases are furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly, on the  contrary, etc. More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of transition. 

understatement

the ironic minimalizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can  frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole. Example: Jonathan Swift’s A Tale  of a Tub: “Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her person for the worse.”

Wit

in modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A statement is humorous, while  suggesting the speaker’s verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. —- usually uses terse language that  makes a pointed statement. Historically, wit originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speed  of understanding, and finally, it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to articulate  an answer that demanded the same quick perception.