Scientific Method, Anatomy, and Physiology Lecture Review

A comprehensive set of practice flashcards covering basic biology, human anatomy (skeletal, muscular, respiratory, nervous, cardiovascular, lymphatic), and cellular processes as detailed in the lecture transcript.

What are the definitions of independent, dependent, and controlled variables in a scientific experiment?

Independent Variable = Variable that is changed; Dependent Variable = Variable that is observed/measured; Controlled Variable = Variable kept the same.

In what order should the steps of the Scientific Method be performed?

1. Observation, 2. Formulate Hypothesis, 3. Develop Predictions, 4. Perform Experiment, 5. Collect & Analyze Data, 6. Form Conclusion.

What is the difference between hydrophobic and hydrophilic molecules?

Hydrophobic molecules repel or cannot attract water, while hydrophilic molecules attract water.

Define Cohesion and Adhesion as they relate to water properties.

Cohesion is water molecules sticking to each other; Adhesion is water molecules sticking to another surface.

How is the phospholipid bilayer structured in a cell membrane?

It is a semi-permeable membrane where hydrophilic heads face outward and hydrophobic tails face inward.

What are the three components of Cell Theory?

1. Cells are the basic units of life, 2. All living things are made of cells, and 3. New cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Compare Diffusion and Osmosis.

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration; Osmosis is the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

What happens to cells in Isotonic, Hypotonic, and Hypertonic solutions?

In Isotonic, concentrations are equal and cells stay normal; in Hypotonic, lower solute concentration causes cells to swell/burst; in Hypertonic, higher solute concentration causes cells to shrink.

How does active transport differ from facilitated diffusion?

Active transport moves substances from low to high concentration and requires energy ($ATP$), while facilitated diffusion uses protein carriers and requires no energy.

What are the five primary functions of the skeletal system?

Support, protection, movement, blood cell formation (hematopoiesis), and mineral storage.

Define the functions of Osteoblasts, Osteoclasts, and Osteocytes.

Osteoblasts build bone and create osteocytes; Osteoclasts break down bone (bone resorption); Osteocytes are mature bone cells.

Distinguish between the Periosteum and Endosteum.

The Periosteum covers the outer surface of bone, while the Endosteum lines the interior of bone.

List the five vertebral regions and the number of vertebrae in each.

Cervical: $7$, Thoracic: $12$, Lumbar: $5$, Sacrum: $5$ (fused), Coccyx: $4$ (fused).

What are the four properties of muscle tissue?

Excitability (responds to stimulation), contractility (shortens with force), extensibility (can stretch), and elasticity (returns to original shape).

Identify the connective tissue coverings: Epimysium, Perimysium, and Endomysium.

Epimysium surrounds the entire muscle; Perimysium surrounds fascicles (bundles); Endomysium surrounds individual muscle fibers.

Identify the following muscle cell structures: Sarcolemma, Sarcoplasm, and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum.

Sarcolemma is the cell membrane; Sarcoplasm is the cytoplasm; Sarcoplasmic Reticulum stores calcium ions.

In muscle contraction, what are the thin and thick filaments?

Actin is the thin filament; Myosin is the thick filament.

What is the role of Troponin and Tropomyosin in muscle contraction?

Tropomyosin covers actin binding sites; Troponin binds calcium and shifts tropomyosin to allow actin to bind myosin (forming a crossbridge).

Trace the airflow pathway from the point of entry into the respiratory system to the site of gas exchange.

Nasal/Oral Cavity $\rightarrow$ Pharynx $\rightarrow$ Larynx $\rightarrow$ Trachea $\rightarrow$ Right & Left Bronchi $\rightarrow$ Bronchioles $\rightarrow$ Alveoli.

What are the functions of the Pharynx and Epiglottis?

The pharynx is a passageway for food and air; the epiglottis closes the airway during swallowing.

Define the two layers of the pleura in the respiratory system.

Parietal Pleura is the outer membrane lining the thoracic cavity; Visceral Pleura directly covers the lungs.

What are the two major divisions of the Nervous System and their components?

Central Nervous System (CNS), consisting of the brain and spinal cord; Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), consisting of the nerves.

Contrast the functions of the Cerebrum and Cerebellum.

The Cerebrum is involved in thinking, sensory processing, and voluntary actions; the Cerebellum manages balance, coordination, and posture.

Identify the parts of a neuron: Dendrites, Cell Body, Axon, and Myelin Sheath.

Dendrites receive signals; Cell Body (Soma) contains the nucleus; Axon carries impulses away; Myelin Sheath insulates the axon.

Which cells produce myelin in the CNS versus the PNS?

Oligodendrocytes produce myelin in the Central Nervous System (CNS); Schwann Cells produce myelin in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

What are the three layers of the meninges?

Dura Mater (thick outer layer), Arachnoid Mater (middle layer), and Pia Mater (thin inner layer).

Trace the flow of blood through the heart starting from the Vena Cava.

Vena Cava $\rightarrow$ Right Atrium $\rightarrow$ Tricuspid Valve $\rightarrow$ Right Ventricle $\rightarrow$ Pulmonary Valve $\rightarrow$ Pulmonary Artery $\rightarrow$ Lungs $\rightarrow$ Pulmonary Veins $\rightarrow$ Left Atrium $\rightarrow$ Bicuspid (Mitral) Valve $\rightarrow$ Left Ventricle $\rightarrow$ Aortic Valve $\rightarrow$ Aorta.

What is the composition of blood by percentage?

Plasma (55 \text{%}) and Formed Elements (45 \text{%}), which include RBCs, WBCs, and platelets.

Identify the components of the cardiac conduction system in order.

SA Node (pacemaker) $\rightarrow$ Junctional Fibers $\rightarrow$ AV Node (delays impulse) $\rightarrow$ AV Bundle (Bundle of His) $\rightarrow$ Bundle Branches $\rightarrow$ Purkinje Fibers.

Name five organs/structures of the Lymphatic System.

Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, appendix, and Peyer's patches.

Compare Innate and Adaptive Immunity.

Innate Immunity is non-specific and present at birth; Adaptive Immunity is a specific response to pathogens.

Describe the difference between Active and Passive Acquired Immunity.

Active Immunity is long-lasting protection where the body makes its own antibodies; Passive Immunity is temporary protection where the body receives pre-made antibodies.