PSC 001 FINAL

the “agency” rule

they are implemented the executive branches to help enforce laws made by congress and often used in criminal cases when you did something guilty or the rule making process

what is the appointment process for members of the supreme court

Supreme Court Justices are appointed through a constitutional process where the President nominates a candidate, followed by Senate Judiciary Committee vetting and a full Senate confirmation vote, requiring a simple majority [1.3, 1.4]. While not officially required, nominees face an informal "litmus test" on judicial ideology and key legal issues, often resulting in partisan, closely-contested confirmations [1.4, 1.6].

bi cameral legislature

a legislative body with two chambers, typically a lower house and an upper house, which must both approve legislation to enact laws.

bill

is a proposed law presented for debate and approval in a legislative body.

bully pulpit

The term "bully pulpit" refers to the unique platform and visibility a prominent political leader, particularly the President of the United States, has to advocate for their agenda and influence public opinion.

bureaucracy

a system of government or management that involves specialized departments and officials. It is characterized by strict rules, procedures, and a hierarchical structure such as government agencies

cabinet level departments

are major administrative units within the executive branch of the US government, each headed by a cabinet member, responsible for specific areas of public policy, government function, and management.

chevron decision

A legal principle established by the Supreme Court in the case Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. It directs courts to defer to a government agency's interpretation of ambiguous statutes that it administers, allowing for more flexible regulatory enforcement.

conference committee

joint committees appointed to resolve differences in the senate and house verisons of the same bill.

example an would be if the senate decided to agree with sending 20 billion tax bill but the house of rep decided to send in 10 billion….they would negitiaote a compromise and agree with a settled 15 billion tax bill

congressional oversight

The review and supervision of federal agencies, programs, activities, and policy implementation by Congress to ensure laws are upheld and effectively administered.

consituency

A constituency is a defined geographical area or body of voters represented by an elected official in a legislature. It refers to both the physical district (e.g., a voting ward) and the people (constituents) living there who elect a representative, such as an MP or Congress member

example uk parliemnt or the house of representatives

court of appeals

A court of appeals is a judicial body that reviews decisions from lower courts (trial courts) to determine if legal errors were made, acting as an intermediate step between trial courts and the supreme court. These courts do not hear new evidence or witnesses, but rather decide if the law was applied correctly

deep state

a theory suggesting an unseen coalition of government and military officials, often believed to operate independently of elected representatives, influencing state policies.

discharge petiton

A procedure used in the U.S. House of Representatives to bring a bill out of committee for a vote on the floor, typically requiring the signatures of a majority of members.

A petition in November 2025 successfully brought the bill to the floor, passing the House 427-1.because they are designed to bypass the very party leadership that controls the House floor, requiring 218 signatures (a majority) in a highly partisan, public, and pressured environment

electoral college

A body of representatives established by the United States Constitution for the election of the President and Vice President, consisting of electors from each state.

executive agreements

international pacts made by the U.S. President with foreign nations that do not require Senate ratification. While these agreements are politically and sometimes legally binding on the U.S. under international law, a President's promise to sign future laws to fully execute them faces significant constitutional limitations, primarily because the President cannot unilaterally dictate how Congress passes legislation..however there are limitations for that such as the juducial review

executive office of the president

The Executive Office of the President (EOP) consists of immediate staff and supportive agencies that assist the President in various functions, including policy development and coordination, and communication with Congress and the public.

executive order

A directive issued by the President to manage the operations of the federal government and enforce lawsor to guide the implementation of policy initiatives. It has the force of law unless overturned by Congress or the courts. they use it to make policy changes, creating and abolishing executive agencies or modifying existing regulations. Executive orders are used by the President to direct federal agencies and officials in their execution of laws and policies and do everything in their stuatority or consitutuional authority

executive priviledge

The right of the President to withhold information from Congress or the courts, often to protect national security or maintain confidentiality in executive communications.

federal district court

A trial court in the federal judicial system that has jurisdiction over federal cases, including civil and criminal matters.They have limited jurisdiction, focusing on cases involving federal crimes, federal government agencies, or civil disputes involving federal questions

District court judges are appointed for life terms by the President and confirmed by the Senate.

filibuster

A parliamentary procedure used in the Senate to prolong debate and delay or prevent a vote on a bill, often involving prolonged speech or discussion.

freedom caucus

A group of conservative Republican members of the House of Representatives who advocate for limited government, lower taxes, and a strict interpretation of the Constitution.

impeachment

The process by which a legislative body brings charges against a government official, including the President, for misconduct, potentially leading to removal from office.

Impoundment

The presidential practice of refusing to spend funds that have been appropriated by Congress, often used to exert control over federal budget priorities.

Judicial restraint versus judicial activism

judicual restraint

• is a legal philosophy that encourages judges to limit the exercise of their own power, emphasizing the need to uphold precedent and defer to the decisions made by legislative bodies. In contrast, judicial activism involves judges taking an active role in interpreting the Constitution and potentially overturning legislative acts.

juducial activism

• is a philosophy that promotes judges making bold policy decisions and interpreting the Constitution in a way that reflects current societal values, sometimes challenging existing laws or precedents.

Judicial review

The power of courts to examine laws and executive actions and determine their constitutionality.

Legislative bill

A proposed piece of legislation that is introduced in Congress for debate and approval before becoming law.

Line-item veto

A special type of veto that allows a governor or other leader offical to reject specific provisions of a bill without vetoing the entire legislative package.however the presdient cannot use this because it violates the seperation of powers and has a “all or nothing” power

Litmus test for judicial appointments

A political or ideological evaluation used to determine a nominee's suitability for a judicial position, often focusing on their stance on specific issues.

Majority Leader of the Senate

The head of the majority party in the Senate, responsible for setting the legislative agenda and managing the party's strategy.In the House, the Majority Leader is second-in-command behind the Speaker, while in the Senate, the Majority Leader holds the primary, most powerful leadership role and represents the party's interests in discussions and negotiations with the minority party.

Majority/minority House districts

Electoral districts that are drawn to create a majority of voters from a particular political party (majority) or to ensure representation for a minority party (minority). These districts often influence party control in the House of Representatives.

Marbury versus Madison

Marbury v. Madison (1803) is a landmark US Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review, affirming the Court's authority to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional. The case arose from a political dispute over undelivered judicial commissions, strengthening the judiciary as a co-equal branch of government.

Key Points & Summary

• Context: Outgoing Federalist President John Adams appointed "midnight judges" at the end of his term, but incoming Secretary of State James Madison (under Jefferson) refused to deliver their commissions.

• The Lawsuit: William Marbury, one of the appointees, sued directly in the Supreme Court, asking for a writ of mandamus (a court order) to force Madison to deliver his commission.

• The Decision: Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that while Marbury was entitled to his commission, the Supreme Court could not force Madison to deliver it.

• Constitutional Conflict: The Court found that the Judiciary Act of 1789, which allowed Marbury to bring his case directly to the Supreme Court, was unconstitutional because it expanded the Court’s jurisdiction beyond what Article III of the Constitution defined.

• Establishment of Judicial Review: Marshall declared that "a Law repugnant to the Constitution is void". This established that the Supreme Court is the final arbiter of constitutional questions, confirming the judiciary's power to check Congress and the executive branch.

  National Archives (.gov) +5

Impact: It firmly established the Supreme Court as an equal branch of government and solidified the concept of checks and balances

Original jurisdiction

Original jurisdiction is a court's authority to hear and decide a case for the first time, including conducting trials, receiving evidence, and hearing testimony. It is distinct from appellate jurisdiction, where a higher court reviews a lower court's decision. Trial courts (like U.S. District Courts) typically handle this, though some supreme courts have narrow original jurisdiction

Parliamentary versus presidential system

• A parliamentary system is a form of governance where the executive branch derives its democratic legitimacy from, and is directly accountable to, the legislature (parliament). In contrast, a presidential system features a separation of powers where the president is elected independently of the legislature and holds significant authority over the executive branch.

Party Caucus

A meeting of members of a political party to discuss policy and select candidates for elections. A party caucus in Congress is a private meeting or formal organization of all members from a specific political party within the House of Representatives or Senate. These groups, often called conferences by Republicans, meet to elect party leadership, select committee members, and set legislative agendas

Party unity voting

A voting pattern where members of a political party consistently vote in the same way, often in support of their party's position on legislation.

Party whip

A party whip is a member of a polilical party who is chosen to ensure party discipline and coordinate votes among party members of what they are thinking, rounds up members when important votes come inand communicates party positions to ensure alignment on key legislation.

Pocket veto

A special kind of veto power exercised by the President of the United States. It occurs when the President leaves a bill unsigned for ten days while Congress is adjourned, effectively preventing it from becoming law.

Prerogative powers

Powers held by the executive that allow for making decisions without legislative approval, often used in matters of national importance. such as granting pardons or retrieves aganist the united states expect for impeachment or commanding armed forces

Progressive Caucus

A group within a political party that advocates for progressive policies and reforms, often focusing on social justice, economic equity, and environmental sustainability.

Referendum

is a procedure enabling voters to reject a measure passed by the legislature or to approve proposed legislation directly. It allows citizens to have a direct say in specific policy decisions. example brexit 2016

Rules Committee

A committee in the House of Representatives that determines the order and scheduling of bills for debate and voting which can no longer than one day, its very tightly runned

Seniority

A legislative practice whereby the longest-serving members of a legislative body receive preferential treatment in committee assignments and leadership positions.

Signing statement

A written pronouncement issued by the President of the United States upon the signing of a bill into law, often indicating how the administration intends to interpret or enforce the legislation.

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer of the House of Representatives, responsible for overseeing House proceedings, appointing members to committees, and influencing legislation.

Statutory review

The process by which a court determines the constitutionality of a statute or legislative act. This review ensures that laws comply with constitutional principles and protects individual rights.

Supreme Court

The highest court in the United States, which has the authority to interpret the Constitution and review the constitutionality of laws and government actions.

The White House Office

The Executive Office of the President that provides support and advice to the President in managing the executive branch and implementing policies.

Treaty making and ratification

The process by which the President negotiates and signs treaties with foreign countries, which then require Senate approval to become legally binding. formal agreements with foreign governments requiring the "Advice and Consent" of the Senate and a $2/3$ majority vote for ratification.  Treaty making involves negotiations by the President, while ratification requires Senate approval and a majority vote.

Twenty-fifth Amendment

An amendment to the U.S. Constitution that establishes procedures for presidential succession and disability. It clarifies the process for filling a vacancy in the office of the Vice President.

Vesting clause

The provision in Article II of the U.S. Constitution that grants the President the power to execute the laws and govern the executive branch.

Veto

The constitutional power of the President to reject a bill passed by Congress, preventing it from becoming law unless overridden by a supermajority.

Views of Congressional voting behavior: representational, organizational, attitudinal

Theories explaining how legislators make voting decisions based on their constituents' preferences, party influences, and personal beliefs.

White House Staff

The group of advisors and assistants who support the President in managing the White House and implementing policy initiatives.