Paper 2 – Belief Systems: Theories of Religion - Marxism and Inteprevitism

What 3 main characteristics is Religion made up of?

1. A system of values and beliefs for people to follow.

2. The experiences that come from being a member or a religious community.

3. A set of ritual, symbols and practices that reflect a religion's system of values.

What is the Substantive definition of religion?

It focuses on the content or substance of religious belief, in particular a belief in God and the existence of supernatural forces.

What is the Functional definition of religion?

It focuses on what the religion does for people (its functions). Religion can integrate people and bind them together (such as football supporter, members of a political group). Also it performs funtions for individuals both socially and psychologically, such answering the eternal/ultimate questions such as what is the meaning of life and what happens when we die.

What is the Constructionist definition of religion?

It focuses on what religion means to each individual person. This is a micro, interpretivist approach. Definitions can differ from person to person.

How does Functionalist theory see the role of religion?

It assumes harmony in society with social order maintained through consensus. Functionalists are interest in how religion meets society's functionalist requirements in terms of value consensus, social solidarity and integration. Functionalism is a conversative force.

What do Functionalists compare society with?

It is like a system of interrelated parts or social institutions similar to an organism, with it's basic needs in order to survive. Society's most basic need for is for social order and solidarity, so that it's members can co-operate. Order is possible due to the existence of value consensus - a set of shared norms and value by which members of society live. Functionalists assume that society is harmonious. It is a consensus theory.

What did Durkheim's understanding of religion come from?

It was based on a tribe of Australian Aborigines who practiced Totemism.

How does Durkheim see religion?

He argued it was a social construction. In his study of the aborigines, each group (clan) had a totem. A totem is a symbol, usually a plant or an animal. Each clan worshipped a different totem and it was seen to be sacred. The totem symbolized both god and society. Durkheim argued that when members worshipped the god (the totem) which represented their clan, they were worshipping society.

What Durkheim outline how Religion brought stability to Society?

By worshipping the totem (and society), Durkheim argued that this act of coming together, performing rituals and practices, bound people together. Bonds were built and this led to group solidarity, where people feel that they belong. So, religion reinforces the collective conscience and thereby keeps society stable.

Give a definition of sacred and profane, with an example of each:

1: Sacred - Something that was special significance and treated with awe and regret.

2: Profane - Something ordinary or everyday e.g. Chair.

What did Malinowski and observe about Religion?

He studied the Trobriand Islands in the Western Pacific. He observed that religion had important social and psychological functions for the islanders. It stabilised society to prevent social breakdown. He argued that religion helped society function by:

1. Dealing with life crises

2. Dealing with unpredictable events and circumstances.

What are Life Crises and how does it apply to society?

Life crises are events in life that bring significant change. The life crises that sociologists are concerned with are birth, puberty, marriage and death.

Functionalists argue that religion, and its rituals and practices, help people deal with these crises so that they are able to function in society and preventing instability.

How did the Trobriand Islanders deal with life crises?

Malinowski argued that religion helped the islands deal with life crises, and also how to deal with unpredictable events. He observed that islanders went through certain rituals when they had to fish in open seas (ocean fishing) to help them cope with the unexpected. When they fished in known waters in the lagoon they did not go through the same rituals.

What did Talcott Parsons argue about the social role of religion?

Like Durkheim, he shared the view that religion reinforces consensus values, even for those who were not particularly religious, but who share the norms and values of society that often based in religious traditions,

Parsons argues that religion provides core values for individuals and society, as well as offering answers to eternal questions.

The Ten Commandments are an example of how religion provides these core values.

What did Neo-functionalist Robert Bellah argue about religion in modern society?

Bellah (1970) used the US as his model, such as Modern day America, people come together due to their faith in 'Americanism'. He called this civil religion. This civil religion is a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself.

American civil religion involves loyalty to the nation-state and a belief in God, both of which are linked to being a true American.

What example did Bellah use to show America was a civil religion?

He use examples of:

Inscription on coin - 'In God we trust'

The phrases 'God bless America' and 'One nation under God'.

The national anthem.

Mount Rushmore being seen as a scared place.

The pledge of allegiance to the American flag.

What did Karl Marx argue about religion?

He argued that religion promoted the interests of the ruling class by discouraging the working class from realising they're being exploited. The working class believe society is 'right' and nothing can be done to alter it.

Marx believed that when capitalism did not exist there would be no need for religion. In a classless, socialist society religion would not be needed.

How do Marxists see religion?

He sees religion working to maintain class divisions and the power of the ruling class.

What two key functions did Marx identify about religion?

1. It is used by the ruling class as an instrument of oppression.

2. It is used by the working class to cushion the effects of oppression.

What did Marx say religion was like?

It is like an 'opium of the people' in that it makes people feel numb to the pain that Capitalism produces for the working class. Religion produces false class consciousness - blinding the working class and making them accept their lowly place in society. Religion offered a theodicy of deprivilege - an explanation of why society is unfair.

What did Leach conclude about religion?

He claim that there is a strong connection between the powerful and the national religion that is imposed on the public e.g. King Charles III is head of the Church of England; only 13% of C of E bishops attended sate comprehensive schools.

What do Norris & Inglehart conclude about religion?

They agree that the poor are often most attracted to religion, as they feel vulnerable and insecure.

What does Halevy conclude about religion?

He argues that religions can often prevent revolution. He uses the example of Methodism which appeased working-class discontent in the 18th and 19th centuries.

How do Modern Marxists view religion?

They have moved away from the view that religious ideas merely reflect the interests of the ruling class and are always a form of false class consciousness for the oppressed. Bloch (1959) claimed that religion had a dual character as it had both a positive and negative effect on social change.

What did Engels acknowledge about religion?

He acknowledges religion could be a radical force. He believed that religion usually started off amongst oppressed groups in society as a way of coping with their oppression, but then the united group with their common belief could become a force for change. Example: Some early Christian sects were opposed to Roman rule and were a force for change.

What did Antonio Gramsci argue about religion?

(Writing in the 1920s/30s) argued that the church did support ruling classes interests but this wasn't inevitable. He argued that, at different historical times, popular forms of religion had emerged which supported the interests of oppressed classes. He believed it was possible that religious beliefs and practices could develop to challenge the dominant ruling class ideology. For example, working class intellectuals could challenge the ruling class and support working class consciousness and liberation.

What does neo-Marxist Otto Maduro comment about religion?

- He argued that religion has some independence (relative autonomy) from ruling class control and from the economic system. He also that religion could be a radical force.

- Maduro observes that in societies with totalitarian dictatorships, all political protest is usually banned. The only places in which people can gather together safely in large numbers are religious places - churches, temples, mosques etc. Also some religious leaders may be charismatic and speak out against inequality. Political leaders are often reluctant to arrest or kill such leaders, because they are 'sacred' and any assassination would make them into martyrs, and may then inspire mass uprising.

Which example do Maduro use to illustrate the potential radical force of religion?

- He uses the example of Liberation Theology.

- The Catholic church in South America had sided with the bourgeisie and right-wing military dictatorships in Latin American countries such as El Salvador and Nicaragua. However, during the 1960s and 70s, Catholic priests started to speak up for the interests of the poor. Some priests developed a new theology, which interpreted Christianity as being on the side of oppressed groups and supporting their liberation.

Example: priests played a leading role in the Sandinista Revolution in Nicaragua and the repressive dictator Somoza was overthrown.

How does the Arab Spring follow the Neo-Marxist example that religion can be used as a radical force?

- It was a revolutionary waves of demonstrations and protests that swept across the Middle East and North Africa between 2010 and 2014.

- Islamic groups (many composed of moderate Muslim activists) made use of social media. They raised awareness of corruption, nepotism, one-party state systems and police brutality through demonstrations, marches and rallies.

- It was initially very successful. Totalitarian dictators were forced from power in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya and Yemen. However, some have since questioned the success, e.g. Control of Libya has fragmented into violent conflict between tribal and religious groups. E.g. Syria - Syria has degenerated into a bitter civil war that has claimed the lives of thousands and resulted in Islamism taking hold.

What Weber's theory on religion and social change?

- Religion can be shaped by economic change, but also religion can also shape economic change. Weber argued that many countries had the necessary economic preconditions to develop Industrial Capitalism, unlike America & Europe. But they lacked the necessary beliefs and attitudes to develop. He argued the development of Capitalism came from a set of religious belief as well as economic preconditions.

- Weber linked the growth of Capitalism to the rise of Calvinism, that originated with 16th century with John Calvin's views. Calvin thought there a group of the people, the elect, that were chosen by God to be redeemed, before they were born. Those mourning the elect could not go to Heaven, however well-behaved. Calvinists unsure about their fate had to behave virtuously to convince themselves, they were apart of the elect. It resulted in a ascetic lifestyle, to forgive life's pleasures and encouraged devotion to work, that was seen as God's calling and a lifestyle that money was not wasted on luxuries.

- Weber argued the spirit of Capitalism involved a predetermination to make money, not spend it.

Instead it was reinvested in business so they became more profitable. Calvinism led to the spirit of Capitalism, because it's followers worked hard and spent little of their money on themselves. Many early Capitalists were Calvinists, reinvested their money into businesses, that grew and became successful.

- However, Capitalism led to the undermining of religion, as it involved rational circulation of profit and loss, and this left little room for the faith and devotion, necessary in religion. This led Calvinism to it's downfall, because it encouraged secularisation.

What is an evaluation of Weber?

- Calvin may have not supported Capitalism. Sombart (2007) argued that Calvin atacked greed and making money for it's self. However, Weber argued that it was not the beliefs, but indirect effects of Calvinist belief, that led to the Protestant Work Ethic.

- Marxist Kautsky (1952) claimed capitalism predated and caused Protestantism. On the contrary, Weber argued reinvestment and pursuit of profit only came after Protestantism.