WW1 depth study To what extent was it a world war?

How important was the role of troops from the British Empire on the Western Front?

Compared with the vast conscript armies of other countries, Britain’s army was tiny in 1914. Recruiting campaigns in 1914 and 1915 helped to increase the size of Britain’s armed forces, and conscription was introduced in 1916. However, without the 3 million recruits from Britain’s empire it would have been impossible to fight the campaigns of 1915–18. Many of these troops served in Africa and the Middle East, but large numbers also fought on the Western Front.

Indian troops

When war broke out, the Indian government sent two infantry and two cavalry divisions to the Western Front. These men had no winter clothing and were not trained to use the new British equipment. Despite this, they took part in the First Battle of Ypres, holding a key part of the front line. In 1914, Indian troops made up one-third of British forces on the Western Front. By the end of October 1915, they had taken part in the Battle of Neuve Chapelle, the Second Battle of Ypres, and had also seen action at Aubers Ridge and Loos. Within a year, the Indian Corps suffered 22 000 casualties. While Indian infantry units were sent to the Middle East in October 1915, the cavalry remained on the Western Front. They took part in the Battles of the Somme, Flers-Courcelette and Cambrai before being sent to Egypt in 1918. In total, around 140 000 Indian soldiers did service in France and Belgium, and almost 9 000 of them died.

Canadian troops

Canada sent the Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF) to the Western Front at the beginning of the war. From January 1915, Canadians fought in most of the major battles, including the Battle of Neuve Chapelle, the Second Battle of Ypres and the Somme. They suffered terrible losses. At the Somme, 800 Newfoundlanders went nto battle on 1 July 1916, and only 68 were at roll call the following morning. At Passchendaele in late 1917, 15 650 Canadian troops became casualties. The Battle of Vimy Ridge (9–12 April 1917) was the first time that all four Canadian divisions fought together. The battle was carefully planned, with extensive mines, reconnaissance from the air and trench raiding in advance. Despite significant German resistance, the Canadians used tanks, a creeping barrage and effective infantry tactics to capture the ridge. There were 10 600 casualties. The Germans casualty count may have been as high as 85 000. Canadian troops also played a leading role in the Hundred Days offensives of 1918. By that time, the Canadian Corps numbered over 100 000 men. The Canadians often led the attacks in this final period of the war, suffering over 30 000 casualties between mid-August and mid-October 1918. More than 60 600 Canadian soldiers died during the war.

German East Africa

The colony of German East Africa was a huge area that included modern-day Burundi, Rwanda and Tanzania. It bordered British, Belgian and Portuguese colonies. German military forces there, led by General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, were small. Lettow-Vorbeck assembled a force of askaris (local solders who served in the armies of the European colonial powers) and German officers. These 20 000 men began harassingBritish forces in Uganda and Kenya. They used guerrilla tactics to force the British to commit significant resources to Africa, drawing them away from Europe. Britain sent two brigades of troops, from Britain and India, to take on the Germans in East Africa. The resulting Battle of Tanga (3–5 November 1914) was a disaster for the Allies. The British and Indian troops were poorly prepared. Although they outnumbered Lettow-Vorbeck’s men eight to one, they suffered 850 casualties and lost large amounts of equipment as they retreated. The guns and ammunition Lettow-Vorbeck captured kept his guerrilla campaign going until 1916, when a South African force arrived. Nearly 40 000 South African, Portuguese and Belgian divisions pursued Lettow-Vorbeck and his 16 000 men as they retreated south. The askaris fought when cornered, but always escaped. They were used to conditions in Africa, but the European armies were not and many Europeans died of disease. The Allies employed nearly 1 million people in their pursuit of Lettow-Vorbeck and his small army. There were no major battles, but some notable victories, including the capture of Kilwa and Kibata by Indian, South African and British troops between October 1916 and January 1917. By 1918, British Empire forces had lost over 10 000 men. Lettow-Vorbeck was the only German military leader to successfully invade British Empire territory. He returned to a hero’s welcome in Germany in early 1919.

What was the contribution of Japan to the Allied victory?

Japan played a significant role in supporting the Allies by initiating a blockade of German territories in the Pacific. On September 2, 1914, they landed 23,000 soldiers at Tsingtao, quickly surrounding the German base, which was defended by about 4,000 troops. With British reinforcements, they utilized artillery and trench warfare tactics effectively, leading to the German surrender on November 7, 1914. Additionally, Japan seized German colonies such as the Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands and provided medical teams to Europe. They also helped secure sea routes, sending destroyers to protect vital supply lines in the Mediterranean, which were crucial for Allied operations, guarding over 700 transport ships from submarine attacks in 1917 and 1918.

British leaders signed three agreements that made contradictory promises with the arabs what were they?

• The Husain-McMahon agreement (October 1915) promised to support Arab

independence in certain parts of the Ottoman Empire. In return, Britain wanted

assistance in the war against the Ottoman Empire.

• The Sykes-Picot Agreement (January 1916) was a secret treaty with France, with

the agreement of Russia and Italy. It promised that after the Ottoman Empire was

defeated, the Middle East would be divided between Britain and France. Some

areas would come under their direct control. Others would remain independent

but still under the infl uence of the British and French. There would a small

international zone.

• The Balfour Declaration (November 1917) was written in a letter from the British

Foreign Secretary, Lord Balfour. It promised British support for a ‘national home

for the Jewish people’ in Palestine, once the Ottoman Empire was defeated.

The arab revolt

The Arab Revolt began in June 1916, when a 70 000-strong Arab army attacked the Ottoman base at the holy city of Medina, in Saudi Arabia. They captured Aqabah and the Hejaz railway, a link between Damascus and Medina. This allowed British troops to advance into Palestine and Syria. By September 1916, assisted by the nomadic Bedouin tribesmen and British naval and air support, the Arabs had captured a number of Red Sea ports, the holy city of Mecca and several other key centres. However, after its initial success, the Arab Revolt began to fail. In June 1916, Britain and France sent some officials to help. One of these men, Captain T.E. Lawrence, became famous as ‘Lawrence of Arabia’ for his role in working with the Arab forces. Gertrude Bell, a British writer and archaeologist who knew the area well, advised the British officials, including Lawrence. Lawrence, Bell and the other Allied officials coordinated British support for the Arab Revolt from October 1916. The Ottoman forces counterattacked in December 1916, but the British provided weapons and ammunition, armoured cars, food and gold to ensure that Arab troops continued to fight. The Arab Revolt became part of the much larger Palestine Campaign in 1917–18. This involved hundreds of thousands of troops from France, Italy, and soldiers from all over the British Empire. The campaign covered huge areas of territory and involved major battles for control of Gaza, Jaffa, southern Judea, Jerusalem and Damascus. By September 1918, the Ottoman Empire had been defeated and the war in the Middle East was over. The new Bolshevik government in Russia had made public the terms of the Sykes- Picot Agreement. As it became clear that Britain had made false promises, the Arabs resented the post-war arrangements in the region. Having made a huge contribution to the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, the Arabs were sidelined in the peace.