The Mind

These flashcards cover essential concepts related to the mind, including biological bases, learning, and memory, which are crucial for understanding psychological principles and preparing for the HOSA SQE Behavioral Health Exam.

What is the primary function of neurotransmitters?

Chemicals that transmit signals across a synapse.

The HPA axis is a central stress response system linked to what two conditions?

Anxiety and depression.

Roughly how long does information usually persist in Short-Term Memory (STM)?

Approximately $15-30$ seconds.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) is crucial for which two biological processes?

Learning and memory.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Composed of the Brain and Spinal Cord, its primary function is to integrate information and coordinate behavior. Damage to the CNS often results in permanent psychological changes.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists of the Somatic and Autonomic systems (Sympathetic & Parasympathetic nervous systems), extending from the CNS to the rest of the body.

Brainstem

Responsible for basic life functions such as breathing and heart rate, and serves as a crucial relay station for information between the brain and spinal cord.

Medulla

Controls vital autonomic functions including breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, vomiting, and swallowing.

Pons

Involved in sleep, arousal, and facial expressions; it connects the cerebellum to the cerebral cortex and plays a role in sleep paralysis and dream generation.

Cerebellum

Critical for balance, coordination, fine motor control, procedural memories, motor learning, and contributes to executive functions and emotional processing.

Thalamus

Acts as the sensory relay station for all senses except smell, filtering and routing sensory information to appropriate cortical areas; also regulates sleep and wakefulness.

Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, hormones, stress responses, body temperature, blood pressure, electrolyte balance, and circadian rhythms; functions as the commander of the endocrine system.

Amygdala

Crucial for fear, threat detection, and emotional learning, particularly processing strong emotions like fear, anger, and pleasure; vital for the formation of emotional memories.

Hippocampus

Essential for the formation of new declarative long-term memories (facts and events) and spatial navigation; it is stress-sensitive and highly vulnerable to stress and neurodegenerative diseases.

Cerebral Cortex

The outermost layer of the brain responsible for higher thinking, decision-making, voluntary movements, coordination of sensory information, learning, memory, and cognition.

Frontal Lobe

Involved in executive functions, planning, problem-solving, decision-making, impulse control, voluntary movement, and personality; contains the motor cortex and prefrontal cortex.

Parietal Lobe

Processes sensory information (touch, temperature, pain, pressure), aids in spatial navigation and awareness, and integrates sensory information; contains the somatosensory cortex.

Occipital Lobe

Primarily responsible for vision, functioning as the main visual processing center that interprets color, form, and motion.

Temporal Lobe

Involved in hearing, language comprehension (Wernicke's area), memory formation (due to its connection to the hippocampus), and facial recognition.

Sensory Neurons (Afferent)

Carry input from the senses and transmit signals from sensory receptors towards the Central Nervous System (CNS).

Motor Neurons (Efferent)

Carry output from the Central Nervous System (CNS) to muscles and glands, initiating movement and glandular secretions.

Interneurons

Located entirely within the Central Nervous System (CNS), they connect sensory and motor neurons and are involved in reflex arcs and complex thought processes.

Action Potential

A rapid, transient depolarization of a neuron's membrane potential, triggered when excitatory signals outweigh inhibitory signals. It progresses through resting potential ($polarized, K^+$ inside, $Na^+$ outside) -> threshold (depolarization starts) -> depolarization ($Na^+$ channels open, $Na^+$ influx) -> repolarization ($Na^+$ channels inactivate, $K^+$ channels open, $K^+$ efflux) -> hyperpolarization ($refractory period$).

Synapse

The junction between two neurons where electrical impulses are transmitted via chemical neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft, targeting behavioral health medications. Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, causing excitation or inhibition.

Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH)

Released by the hypothalamus, it triggers the stress response by stimulating the pituitary gland.

Pituitary Gland

Known as the 'master gland,' its anterior part releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which regulates other glands, particularly stimulating the adrenal cortex to produce hormones. It also releases growth hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone.

Adrenal Cortex

The outer part of the adrenal gland that produces cortisol, a stress hormone regulating metabolism and reducing inflammation.

Adrenal Medulla

The inner part of the adrenal gland that produces adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine), known as catecholamines that mediate the 'fight-or-flight' response.

Cortisol

A stress hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that plays a crucial role in regulating metabolism, reducing inflammation, and mediating the body's stress response.

Adrenaline (Epinephrine) and Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine)

Catecholamines produced by the adrenal medulla that act as neurotransmitters and hormones, mediating the rapid 'fight-or-flight' response to stress.

Pineal Gland

Produces melatonin, a hormone essential for sleep regulation and controlling circadian rhythms.

HPA Axis (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis)

A complex neuroendocrine system that regulates stress responses and impacts mood, energy, and immunity. Chronic activation due to stress can lead to dysregulation, contributing to anxiety disorders, depression, PTSD, and other chronic stress-related health issues.

Polygenic (in Mental Disorders)

Describes mental disorders as involving multiple genes, rather than a single specific gene, for conditions like schizophrenia or depression. Their expression is influenced by complex gene-environment interactions.

Epigenetics

Refers to changes in gene expression that occur without altering the underlying DNA sequence, playing a significant role in an individual's vulnerability to mental health conditions.

Biopsychosocial Model

A holistic model asserting that mental health is influenced by a complex interplay of biological (genetics, brain chemistry), psychological (thoughts, emotions, behaviors, coping skills), and social factors (culture, family, socioeconomic status, stress, trauma). Utilized by professionals for comprehensive care.

Antidepressants

A category of medications commonly used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, and OCD by modulating the activity of various neurotransmitters in the brain.

SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors)

Antidepressants that specifically block the reabsorption of serotonin, thereby increasing its availability in the synapse (e.g., Fluoxetine, Sertraline). They are first-line treatments for depression, anxiety disorders, and OCD.

SNRIs (Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors)

Antidepressants that block the reabsorption of both serotonin and norepinephrine (e.g., Venlafaxine, Duloxetine). They are used for depression, anxiety, and some chronic pain conditions.

TCAs (Tricyclic Antidepressants)

An older class of antidepressants with broad-spectrum effects on several neurotransmitters. While effective for depression and neuropathic pain, they have more notable side effects (e.g., Amitriptyline).

Antipsychotics

Medications primarily acting as dopamine receptor blockers (D2) to treat psychosis, including hallucinations and delusions, in conditions like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

First-generation (typical) Antipsychotics

Characterized by strong D2 dopamine receptor blockade, which is effective in reducing positive psychotic symptoms but often leads to more motor side effects (e.g., Haloperidol).

Second-generation (atypical) Antipsychotics

Block both D2 dopamine and serotonin receptors, resulting in fewer motor side effects but a higher risk of metabolic side effects (e.g., Olanzapine, Risperidone).

Mood Stabilizers

Medications used to treat bipolar disorder by modulating neurotransmitters and intracellular signaling pathways to prevent extreme mood swings between mania and depression.

Lithium

Considered the gold standard mood stabilizer for bipolar disorder, it modulates various neurotransmitters and intracellular signaling pathways to stabilize mood.

Anticonvulsants (as Mood Stabilizers)

Certain anticonvulsant medications (e.g., Valproate, Lamotrigine) are used off-label as mood stabilizers by influencing GABA and glutamate neurotransmission.

Anxiolytics (Anti-anxiety Medications)

Medications used to reduce anxiety, often by enhancing the inhibitory effect of GABA (e.g., Benzodiazepines, Buspirone).

Benzodiazepines

A class of anxiolytics that enhance GABA's inhibitory effect, providing rapid relief for acute anxiety and panic attacks, but carrying a risk of dependence (e.g., Alprazolam, Lorazepam).

Buspirone

An anxiolytic medication that acts on serotonin receptors, known for its slower onset of action, less sedating properties, and lower abuse potential compared to benzodiazepines. Used for generalized anxiety disorder.

Stimulants (for ADHD)

Medications (e.g., Methylphenidate, Amphetamine) that treat ADHD by increasing dopamine and norepinephrine activity in the prefrontal cortex, thereby improving focus and attention.

Trauma and Amygdala Hyperactivity

Trauma can lead to hyperactivity in the amygdala, resulting in an enhanced fear response, characteristic of conditions like PTSD, anxiety disorders, and substance use disorders.

Trauma and Hippocampal Shrinkage

Chronic or early-life trauma can cause shrinkage of the hippocampus, impairing memory consolidation and increasing vulnerability to PTSD and other memory-related issues.

Trauma and Prefrontal Cortex Impairment

Trauma can result in reduced prefrontal cortex involvement, leading to impaired executive functions, emotional regulation, and decision-making.

Sensation

The fundamental process where sensory organs convert physical energy (e.g., light, sound, touch) into neural signals, involving the transduction of energy into electrical signals interpreted by the brain.

Rods (Vision)

Photoreceptors in the retina highly sensitive to dim light, responsible for peripheral and night vision, but do not detect color or fine detail.

Cones (Vision)

Photoreceptors in the retina concentrated in the fovea, responsible for detecting color and fine detail, especially in bright light, enabling sharp central vision.

Cochlea (Hearing)

A snail-shaped, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear where sound waves are transduced into neural signals by hair cells, allowing for the perception of sound.

Olfactory Receptor Neurons (Smell)

Specialized neurons stimulated by odor molecules, projecting directly to the olfactory bulb and then to limbic structures (amygdala, hippocampus) and orbitofrontal cortex, explaining strong links between smell, emotion, and memory.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum intensity of a stimulus that an organism can detect 50% of the time, not a fixed point due to noise and individual differences.

Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference - JND)

The minimum difference in intensity between two stimuli that is required for a person to detect a change 50% of the time, varying based on the original stimulus intensity.

Weber’s Law

A principle stating that the Just Noticeable Difference (JND) for a stimulus is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity, expressed as $\Delta I / I = k$, where $\Delta I$ is the difference threshold, $I$ is the initial stimulus intensity, and $k$ is a constant.

Signal Detection Theory

A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amidst background stimulation (noise), considering both the strength of the signal and psychological factors like experience, expectations, motivation, and fatigue.

Sensory Adaptation

The process by which sensory receptors decrease their sensitivity to unchanging stimuli over time, allowing the sensory system to focus on new, more important information and maintain efficiency.

Diabetic Neuropathy

A biological disorder of sensation caused by nerve damage due to diabetes, often leading to symptoms such as numbness, tingling, or pain in the extremities.

Tinnitus

A biological disorder of sensation characterized by the perception of ringing, buzzing, or other sounds in one or both ears when no external sound is present.

Anosmia

A biological disorder of sensation resulting in the partial or complete loss of the sense of smell.

Perception

The active process of organizing, selecting, and interpreting sensory input to form meaningful experiences, involving cognitive processes that construct a meaningful representation of the world beyond raw sensory data.

Bottom-Up Processing

Data-driven processing where perceptions are built from raw sensory information, moving upwards from sensory input to the brain's integration and interpretation (e.g., seeing lines and colors before recognizing an object).

Top-Down Processing

Conceptually-driven processing where past experiences, expectations, motivations, and context influence and guide the interpretation of sensory information (e.g., quickly recognizing a blurry image when you know what to expect).

Gestalt Principles

Principles describing how the human mind tends to organize visual information into meaningful wholes, including figure-ground (perceiving objects distinct from their surroundings), similarity, proximity, closure, and continuity.

Inattentional Blindness

A phenomenon where an individual fails to notice a fully visible, but unexpected, object or event in their visual field because their attention is diverted elsewhere.

Change Blindness

A failure to notice obvious changes in an environment or visual stimulus, occurring due to a disruption or shift in attention.

Perceptual Distortions (Illusions)

Errors or misinterpretations of sensory information (e.g., optical illusions like the Müller-Lyer illusion) that reveal how context, depth cues, and prior assumptions influence perception, demonstrating its constructive and sometimes fallible nature.

PTSD and Perception

In individuals with PTSD, perception can be significantly affected, leading to symptoms like hypervigilance, distorted threat perception, and intrusive flashbacks.

Schizophrenia and Perception

In schizophrenia, perception is profoundly altered, manifesting as hallucinations (sensory experiences without external stimuli), delusions (fixed false beliefs), and a pervasive altered perception of reality.

Controlled Processes

Levels of consciousness that demand full, deliberate attention and effort, typically performed consciously, such as learning a new skill or solving a complex problem.

Automatic Processes

Levels of consciousness that require minimal awareness or effort, occurring without deliberate thought, such as walking or driving a familiar route.

Altered States of Consciousness

States characterized by significant deviations from normal waking consciousness in thought, perception, and emotion, including sleep, dreaming, meditation, hypnosis, and drug-induced states.

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

A neural network located in the brainstem fundamental for regulating arousal, sleep-wake cycles, and overall alertness, playing a critical role in the biology of consciousness.

NREM Sleep vs. REM Sleep

NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) sleep progresses through stages from light to deep, restorative sleep, while REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is characterized by brain activity similar to waking, vivid dreaming, and transient muscle paralysis.

Insomnia

A common sleep disorder characterized by persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or both, leading to non-restorative sleep and impairing daytime functioning.

Sleep Apnea

A severe sleep disorder characterized by repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep, which can lead to fragmented sleep and reduced oxygen levels.

Narcolepsy

A chronic neurological condition characterized by overwhelming daytime sleepiness and sudden attacks of sleep (sleep attacks), often triggered by strong emotions.

Drive-Reduction Theory

A prominent theory of motivation positing that physiological needs (e.g., hunger, thirst) create an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need and restore homeostasis.

Arousal Theory (of Motivation)

A theory suggesting that individuals are motivated to maintain an optimal level of physiological arousal. If arousal levels are too low, we seek to increase them (e.g., through novel activities); if too high, we seek to decrease them.

Incentive Theory (of Motivation)

A theory proposing that external rewards or punishments (incentives) act as powerful motivators that pull individuals toward certain behaviors or away from others.

Self-Determination Theory

A contemporary theory of motivation focusing on three innate psychological needs—autonomy (feeling in control), competence (feeling effective), and relatedness (feeling connected)—that, when satisfied, promote psychological growth and well-being.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

A motivational theory proposing that human needs are arranged in a hierarchical pyramid, with basic physiological needs at the base, progressing upwards through safety, love/belonging, esteem, and finally self-actualization at the apex.

Hypothalamus (Hunger Regulation)

The hypothalamus plays a dual role in hunger regulation: the lateral hypothalamus stimulates hunger, while the ventromedial hypothalamus suppresses hunger.

Ghrelin

Often referred to as the 'hunger hormone,' it is released by the stomach and signals the brain to increase appetite.

Leptin

A 'satiety hormone' produced by fat cells, it signals the hypothalamus to decrease appetite and increase energy expenditure, regulating long-term energy balance.

Reward System (Dopaminergic Pathways)

Neural pathways, particularly the mesolimbic pathway, that are crucial for experiencing pleasure, motivation, and reinforcement learning due to the release of dopamine.

Components of Emotion

Emotion comprises three interconnected components: physiological arousal (bodily changes via the autonomic nervous system), cognitive interpretation (subjective appraisal or labeling), and behavioral expression (facial expressions, body language, vocal tone, actions).

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Proposes that physiological arousal directly causes emotion; we feel emotion after we perceive our physiological responses to a stimulus (e.g., 'I am afraid because I tremble').

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Contends that physiological arousal and emotion occur simultaneously and independently, as the thalamus relays information to both the cerebral cortex (for emotional experience) and the autonomic nervous system (for physiological arousal) at the same time.

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Suggests that to experience emotion, one must first experience physiological arousal and then cognitively label that arousal based on the context or situation.

Lazarus Theory (Cognitive Appraisal Theory)

States that cognitive appraisal (interpreting a situation) precedes both physiological arousal and the emotional experience; the interpretation of an event determines the emotional response.

Emotion Dysregulation

The inability to effectively manage and respond to emotional experiences, manifesting as difficulties in controlling the intensity, duration, or expression of emotions, often observed in disorders like depression or Borderline Personality Disorder.

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) and Emotion

A mental health condition characterized by severe emotional dysregulation, including rapid mood swings, intense anger, impulsivity, and chronic feelings of emptiness.

Classical Conditioning

A type of associative learning where an organism learns to associate two stimuli, such that a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit an involuntary response (e.g., Pavlov's dogs learning to associate a bell with food).

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning where voluntary behaviors are associated with their consequences (e.g., reinforcement, punishment), influencing the likelihood of those behaviors being repeated or stopped. Key concepts include shaping and schedules of reinforcement.