Biology Reading Guides: Exam Review Flashcards

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering basic biology, chemical foundations, water properties, macromolecules, cell structure, metabolism, cellular respiration, and genetics.

Quantitative Data

Numerical data that is measured, such as height being $170\,cm$.

Qualitative Data

Descriptive data that is observed, such as eye color being brown.

Hypothesis

A testable, educated guess that can be supported or rejected through experiments.

Theory

A well-supported explanation based on many experiments that is accepted as reliable scientific knowledge.

Inductive Reasoning

A form of logical thinking that uses specific observations to reach a general conclusion.

Deductive Reasoning

A form of logical thinking that uses a general idea to make a specific prediction.

Independent Variable

The factor in a scientific experiment that is changed by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

The factor in a scientific experiment that is measured to see the effect of the change.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment and is used for comparison.

Atomic Number

The number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom.

Atomic Mass

The total number of protons plus neutrons in an atom.

Isotope

Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons.

Valence Shell

The outermost electron shell of an atom.

Ion

An atom that has gained or lost electrons, resulting in a net charge.

Cation

A positively charged ion that has lost electrons.

Anion

A negatively charged ion that has gained electrons.

Covalent Bond

A strong chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms.

Ionic Bond

A chemical bond formed by the transfer of electrons, resulting in an attraction between a cation and an anion.

Hydrogen Bond

A weak attraction between the partial positive charge of a hydrogen atom and a partial negative charge on another molecule.

Hydrophilic

Literally "water-loving"; refers to substances that are attracted to water and are usually polar or charged.

Hydrophobic

Literally "water-fearing"; refers to nonpolar substances that are repelled by water.

High Specific Heat

A property of water where it absorbs a lot of heat before its temperature changes, helping to stabilize climates.

Cohesion

The property of water molecules sticking to each other, caused by hydrogen bonds.

Adhesion

The property of water molecules sticking to other surfaces, such as glass.

Buffers

Substances that maintain stable conditions by resisting changes in $pH$.

Hydrocarbon

An organic molecule consisting entirely of carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Dehydration

Also known as a condensation reaction, it builds larger molecules by removing $H_2O$ to form bonds.

Hydrolysis

A process that breaks down polymers into smaller units by adding $H_2O$ to break chemical bonds.

Monosaccharides

Simple sugars with a general formula of $(CH_2O)_n$, such as glucose and fructose.

Polysaccharides

Complex carbohydrates used for energy storage (starch, glycogen) or structural support (cellulose, chitin).

Phospholipids

Amphipathic molecules composed of glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group; the main component of cell membranes.

Peptide Bond

A covalent bond formed via a dehydration reaction between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.

Nucleotides

The monomers of nucleic acids consisting of a phosphate group, a 5-carbon sugar, and a nitrogenous base.

Prokaryotic Cells

Smaller, simpler cells (approx. $1-10\,\mu m$) that lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Eukaryotic Cells

Larger, complex cells (approx. $10-100\,\mu m$) that contain a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Mitochondrion

The organelle responsible for producing $ATP$ during cellular respiration; known as the powerhouse of the cell.

Osmosis

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane toward a higher solute concentration.

Hypertonic

A solution with a higher solute concentration than the cell, causing water to leave the cell.

Hypotonic

A solution with a lower solute concentration than the cell, causing water to enter the cell.

Metabolism

The sum of all chemical reactions that occur within a cell or organism.

Catabolism

The metabolic process of breaking down molecules to release energy.

Anabolism

The metabolic process of synthesizing complex molecules, which requires energy.

Endergonic

A chemical reaction that absorbs energy; the products have more energy than the reactants.

Exergonic

A chemical reaction that releases energy; the products have less energy than the reactants.

Activation Energy

The minimum amount of energy required to initiate a chemical reaction.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

The main energy carrier in cells, consisting of adenine, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups.

Oxidation

The loss of electrons or hydrogen atoms from a molecule, often releasing energy.

Reduction

The gain of electrons or hydrogen atoms by a molecule, storing energy.

Transcription

The process in the central dogma where $DNA$ is copied into $mRNA$ in the nucleus.

Translation

The process where the $mRNA$ sequence is used to build a polypeptide chain at the ribosome.

Codon

A three-nucleotide sequence on $mRNA$ that codes for a specific amino acid.

Diploid ($2n$)

A cell containing two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.

Haploid ($n$)

A cell containing only one set of chromosomes, typical of gametes.

Binary Fission

The method of asexual reproduction used by prokaryotic cells where the cell splits into two identical cells.

Allele

Different versions or variants of the same gene.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism, represented by allele combinations like $TT$, $Tt$, or $tt$.

Phenotype

The observable physical traits or characteristics of an organism.

Pleiotropy

A genetic condition where one single gene affects multiple, seemingly unrelated traits.

Polygeny

An inheritance pattern where multiple genes control a single trait, such as height or skin color.

Epistasis

A genetic interaction where one gene masks or interferes with the expression of another gene.