Chemistry of Non-metals, Metals, and Batteries Lecture Notes

Flashcards covering the properties of non-metals, industrial processes for sulfuric acid and aluminum, redox potentials, spontaneity, battery design, and rust prevention.

Boron

An element that forms three covalent bonds contrary to the octet rule; its derivatives include boric acid (used to kill ants) and borax (used as a detergent).

Nitrogen

An element that assumes many oxidation states from $-3$ to $+5$ and is found in explosives, fertilizers, laughing gas, Viagra, smog, and preservatives.

Carbon Allotropes

The three forms of carbon identified as $C_{60}$, graphite, and diamonds.

Phosphorus

An element extracted from $Ca_3(PO_4)_2$ rock used in soaps, toothpaste, fertilizer, and pesticides; it forms the backbone of nucleic acids like DNA and can cause algae blooms.

Halides

Elements characterized by small radii, high ionization energy, and high electronegativity, whose oxides and hydrides are acidic.

Fluoride

An ion that protects teeth from decay by inserting an island of $OH^-$ into tooth enamel.

Chlorine

A strong oxidizing agent used for disinfection, sanitation, and the production of PVC piping.

Noble gases

Inert elements with 2 or 8 electrons in filled shells, used as cryogens ($He$), inert gases ($Ar$), or in lights ($Ne$).

Claus Process

A two-step process that converts hydrogen sulfide ($H_2S$) into elemental sulfur ($S$).

Contact Process

A four-step process that converts elemental sulfur ($S$) into sulfuric acid ($H_2SO_4$).

Wet Method

A process where half of all sulfuric acid is used to solubilize phosphate in rocks for use in fertilizers.

Standard Conditions

Conditions defined as $1 ext{ M}$, $1 ext{ atm}$, and $298 ext{ K}$.

Standard Hydrogen Electrode

A reference electrode with a potential of $0 ext{ V}$.

Coinage Metals

Metals including $Cu$, $Ag$, $Au$, and $Pt$ found at the top of the table of standard half-reaction potentials, making them easier to reduce.

Aluminum

The lightest metal, obtained from the Bayer Process (for the oxide) and Hall Process (for the metal), whose oxide forms gemstones like topaz, ruby, and sapphire.

Alkali Metals

Metals with large radii, low ionization energy, and low electronegativity that form $+1$ cations and basic oxides and hydrides.

Beryllium

A metal that forms covalent bonds because of its small size and ability to attract electrons.

$$Mg^{2+}$$

An ion found in chlorophyll that makes the molecule more rigid to permit electron transport for photosynthesis instead of energy loss through vibrations.

Equilibrium Constant ($K$) > 1

A condition where the reaction is product-favored, spontaneous, and the Gibbs free energy ($G$) is negative.

Primary Batteries

Disposable, one-time use batteries such as Alkaline (household) or $Zn$-$Hg$ and $Zn$-air (specialty/hearing aids).

Secondary Batteries

Rechargeable and reusable batteries such as $Li$-ion, Lead-acid, $NiCd$, and $NiMH$.

$Li$-ion Battery Components

Parts including an electrolyte, a porous separator, lithium-metal oxide, lithium ion, and lithium-carbon (graphite).

Rust

A nonspontaneous product formed by the oxidation of iron in the presence of water and air.

Sacrificial Electrodes

Metals like $Mg$ and $Al$ that are easier to oxidize than iron and are added to prevent rusting.

Galvanization

The prevention of rusting by adding a layer of $Zn$ to iron.

Stainless Steel

Cr and V added to Fe

Table of Standard Half Reaction Potentials

• Top —> positive, easier to reduce, strong oxidizing agents, coinage metals

• Bottom —> negative, easier to oxidize, strong reducing agents