Bodily processes

Sex, sleep, emotions

sexual dimorphism

When males and females of the same species have different characteristics beyond sex organs

socialization

The process by which we learn and teach appropriate behavior in society

Müllerian system

Precursors of female internal sex organs in embryos

Wolffian system

Precursors of male internal sex organs in embryos

Turner syndrome

Disorder where a person has only one chromosome (X), associated with several developmental abnormalities

Swyer syndrome

Disorder where a person has a Y chromosome but a nonfunctional SRY gene, resulting in the development of external female genitalia (in some cases) and no internal sexual anatomy

persistent Mullerian duct syndrome

Disorder where the testes develop normally, but there is insufficient anti-Mullerian hormone signalling. This results in the development of internal female sexual anatomy alongside internal and external male sexual anatomy

androgen insensitivity syndrome

Disorder caused by mutations in the androgen receptor of males which result in incomplete or no masculinization of the body— in some cases, external female genitalia may develop

Klinefelter syndrome

Disorder where males are born with an extra X chromosome, causing low testosterone and infertility, among other symptoms

congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Disorder occurring in both males and females where the adrenal gland produces excess androgen, often resulting in the development of ambiguous genitalia in females

defeminization

State made evident by the absence of female sexual behavior even in the presence of female sex hormones

ventromedial nucleus of hypothalamus

Region of the brain which plays an essential role in female sexual behavior

medial preoptic area of amygdala

Region of the brain which plays an essential role in male sexual behavior

non-REM stage 3/4 sleep

Deep, slow-wave sleep associated with low frequency, large amplitude EEG signals. Represents synchronized bursts of activity

beta activity

EEG signals associated with an aroused state presenting as high friquency, low amplitude oscillations and representing desynchronous neural activity

alpha activity

EEG signals between 8 and 13 Hz, typical of an awake and relaxed person

theta activity

EEG signals between 4 and 8 Hz, appearing intermittently when people are drowsy and during early stages of sleep

waste-removal theory

Theory arguing that sleep is required for the efficient removal of waste from the brain

advanced sleep phase syndrome

Disorder caused by a mutation in the Per 2 gene causing a 4-hour advance in the circadian clock

delayed sleep phase syndrome

Disorder caused by a mutation in the Per 3 gene causing a 4-hour delay in the circadian clock

narcolepsy

Sleep disorder characterized by sudden and irresistible urges to sleep, called “sleep attacks”

insomnia

Sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep or waking often during the night

REM sleep behavior disorder

Sleep disorder in which individuals do not become paralyzed during REM sleep and thus act out their dreams (punching, kicking, flailing, etc.)

waste removal theory

Theory of sleep regulation which posits that certain molecules build up in the extracellular fluid of the brain while we are awake, and promote sleep at high concentrations— while we sleep, they are cleared away

ventrolateral preoptic area

Region of the brain which controls the sleep/wake flip-flop circuit

volitional facial paresis

Disorder often associated with strokes and Parkinson’s disease, which makes people unable to control facial muscles themselves, though they can reflexively show emotion (e.g. told to smile vs. told a joke)

emotional facial paresis

Disorder which makes people unable to show natural emotional expressions, though they can control facial muscles mimic an expression

ventromedial prefrontal cortex

Region of the brain important for regulating expressions of emotion