Integrated Sciences

Thermal Physics

Study of heat, temperature, and energy transfer.

Specific heat capacity

Energy to raise 1 kg of substance by 1°C (J/(kg·°C)).

Latent heat

Energy to change state without temperature change (J/kg).

Current

Flow of charge (amperes, A).

Voltage

Potential difference pushing current (volts, V).

Resistance

Opposition to current (ohms, Ω).

Ohm's Law

V = I × R.

Series resistance

R_T = R₁ + R₂ + …

Parallel resistance

1/R_T = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + …

Force

Push or pull (N).

Newton's Second Law

F = m × a.

Acceleration

Rate of change of velocity (m/s²).

Velocity

Speed with direction.

Weight

Force of gravity (W = m × g).

Work

Force × distance (J).

Kinetic Energy

½ × m × v².

Gravitational Potential Energy

m × g × h.

Power

Work ÷ time (W).

Convex lens

Thicker in middle; converges light; real or virtual images.

Concave lens

Thinner in middle; diverges light; always virtual, upright, diminished.

Focal length

Distance from lens centre to focal point.

Refraction

Bending of light when changing medium.

Myopia

Short-sightedness; corrected with concave lens.

Hyperopia

Long-sightedness; corrected with convex lens.

Accommodation

Lens changes shape to focus on near/far objects.

Real image

Can be projected on screen.

Virtual image

Cannot be projected on screen.

Scalar

Magnitude only (distance, speed, mass, energy, time, temperature).

Vector

Magnitude + direction (displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, weight).

Displacement

Straight-line distance from start to finish with direction.

Distance

Total path length (scalar).

Significant figures

Digits in measurement that carry meaning.

Precision

How close measurements are to each other.

Accuracy

How close measurement is to true value.

Alpha decay

Loses 2 protons, 2 neutrons; atomic number -2, mass number -4.

Beta decay

Neutron → proton + electron; atomic number +1, mass same.

Gamma decay

Releases energy; atomic and mass number unchanged.

Alpha penetration

Stopped by paper.

Beta penetration

Stopped by aluminium/skin.

Gamma penetration

Stopped by thick lead/concrete.

Half-life

Time for half of radioactive nuclei to decay.

Acid

Substance releasing H⁺ ions; pH < 7.

Base

Substance releasing OH⁻ ions or accepting H⁺; pH > 7.

Neutralisation

Acid + base → salt + water.

pH scale

0-14; 7 neutral; lower = more acidic, higher = more alkaline.

Chemical equation

Reactants → products.

(s)

Solid state.

(l)

Liquid state.

(g)

Gas state.

(aq)

Aqueous (dissolved in water).

Balanced equation

Same atoms on both sides.

Endothermic

Absorbs heat; surroundings feel cold.

Exothermic

Releases heat; surroundings feel hot.

Ionic bond

Electron transfer between metal and non-metal.

Covalent bond

Electron sharing between two non-metals.

Ionic properties

High melting point; conducts when molten/dissolved.

Covalent properties

Low melting point; never conducts.

Cation

Positive ion (lost electrons).

Anion

Negative ion (gained electrons).

Electrolysis

Breaking compound using electricity.

Cathode

Negative electrode; attracts cations.

Anode

Positive electrode; attracts anions.

Cathode product (molten NaCl)

Sodium metal.

Anode product (molten NaCl)

Chlorine gas.

Water electrolysis cathode

Hydrogen gas.

Water electrolysis anode

Oxygen gas.

Red Cat

Reduction at Cathode (gain electrons).

An Ox

Oxidation at Anode (lose electrons).

Alkane

Single bonds only; saturated; CₙH₂ₙ₊₂.

Alkene

At least one double bond; unsaturated; CₙH₂ₙ.

Bromine water test

Alkene turns orange/brown to colourless; alkane no change.

Complete combustion

Hydrocarbon + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O.

Incomplete combustion

Hydrocarbon + limited O₂ → CO + H₂O or C + H₂O.

Oxidation (oxygen)

Gain of oxygen.

Reduction (oxygen)

Loss of oxygen.

Rusting

Oxidation of iron in presence of O₂ and water.

Bones

Hard connective tissue providing support and protection.

Muscles

Tissues that contract to create movement.

Tendon

Connects muscle to bone.

Ligament

Connects bone to bone.

Antagonistic pair

Two muscles working opposite (e.g., biceps and triceps).

Artery

Carries blood away from heart; thick walls; high pressure.

Vein

Carries blood toward heart; thin walls; valves.

Capillary

Microscopic vessel for gas/nutrient exchange.

Red blood cells

Carry oxygen; contain haemoglobin.

White blood cells

Fight infection; produce antibodies.

Platelets

Blood clotting.

Plasma

Liquid part of blood.

Digestion

Breaking down food into absorbable nutrients.

Enzyme

Biological catalyst.

Amylase

Breaks down starch into sugars.

Protease

Breaks down protein into amino acids.

Lipase

Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

Villi

Finger-like projections in small intestine for absorption.

Nicotine

Addictive chemical in cigarettes.

Tar

Carcinogen in smoke; damages lungs.

Carbon monoxide

Gas in smoke; binds to haemoglobin reducing oxygen.

Alcohol

Depressant that slows nervous system.

Cirrhosis

Liver scarring from long-term alcohol use.

Nervous system function

Detects stimuli, processes information, coordinates responses.