SG3- PB

What is global governance?

the Intervention by the global community to regulate issues such as human rights, sovereignty and territorial integrity

What is a treaty?

a formal, written agreement between 2 or more states which are binding in international and national law. Often drawn up by the UN or a regional organisation, like the EU

e.g. The Westphalian Treaty

What is international law?

defines the legal responsibilities and rules which govern states in their conduct with each other, and the treatment of citizens within state boundaries. Also regulates global commons, such as the world’s oceans, cyberspace and the atmosphere. UN is the main institution responsible for upholding international law

e.g. UNCLOS is used to govern the martime borders of the Arctic coastal nations

What is a norm?

a universally accepted standards of behaviour. The UN charter has been instrumental in developing universal standards by which nation states should be expected to abide in relation to their citizens e.g. no torture, no genocide, no wars of aggression

e.g. all states have sovereignty and territorial integrity

Does global governance impact state sovereignty?

YES:

• Collective decision making by a range of external (or non-state) organisations means that the state is no longer the sole authority in decision making, therefore could be seen as a challenge to state sovereignty

NO:

• External organisations can also help support state sovereignty and territorial integrity by resolving conflict, settling disputes, upholding human rights and promoting sustainable development

What is the UN?

United Nations is the biggest and most significant of all intergovernmental organisations in achieving world peace

• Set up in 1945 as the world emerged from WW2

• Was established to prevent future wars and improve lives of people

• Headquarters in NYC and the current General Secretary (Head of UN) is Antonio Guterres

• The UN Charter establishes the purpose, structure and framework of the UN and is binding on all member states

• The 3 aims are:

1. Secure international peace

2. Fight poverty and promote sustainable development

3. Protect human rights

• Purpose is to bring all nations together to work together and solve these problems

• 193 member states which finance the UN’s work and govern its activities

Tell me about the UN organs:

• Security Council

• International Court of Justice

• General Assembly

• Most powerful organ in charge of maintaining peace and security among countries

• Settles disputes between states in accordance with international law

• Like a ‘world parliament’ where issues as discussed and international law is made

What is a UN special agency and tell me about the following:

• UNHCR

• World Health Organisation (WHO)

• World food programme (WFP)

Deliver humanitarian aid and sustainable development

• Most important tools in seeking to alleviate the plight of refugees

• Promotes the rights of the child such as spearheading children immunisation programmes globally

• Provides food relief

How does the UN provide global governance in conflict?

UN security council has primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security

• 15 member states, 5 of which are permanent (China, France, Russia, UK, USA). The remaining 10 non-member states are elected on a 2 year term

• The security council debate and make resolutions on best course of action to try and solve conflict

• However, only the 5 permanent members have the ‘right of veto’ which means if 1 of them votes against a resolution, it cannot be passed

• All UN members must respect and abide by its decisions

• Security council attaches great importance to preventing armed conflict but once a dispute has flared, first aim is to seek a diplomatic solution. If conflict persists, the security council may work towards a ceasefire and deploy peacekeepers. It can order UN nations to impose economic sanctions

How did the UN globally govern in Russia, Iceland, USA, Norway, Canada and Denmark? (territorial integrity)

Upholding international law:

• UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) will settle overlapping claims to an extended Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in the Arctic ocean

How did the UN globally govern in Pakistan and India? (threat to sovereignty)

Treaty making to settle disputes between states:

• Simla agreement of 1972 was a peace treaty brokered by the UN Security Council which ended conflict over disputed territory. It led to a Line of Control (a de facto border) dividing sovereign rights over Kashmir

• UN Security Council set up the R. Indus Water treaty which led to a water sharing agreement and cooperation between the 2 countries

How did the UN globally govern in Nigeria? (threat to sovereignty + human rights)

Settling disputes via the International Court of Justice:

• International court of justice will settle whether Shell had an involvement in the judicial killing of the Ogoni 9 activists

How did the UN globally govern in Afghanistan? (threat to sovereignty + human rights + territorial integrity)

Delivering humanitarian aid, peacebuilding and peacekeeping:

• UNHCR first set up refugee camps in 1979 following the Russia invasion and outbreak of war. They then brokered the Solution Strategy to encourage repatriation of refugees back to their homeland once safe. UN Security Council also established a peacekeeping force (ISAF) to increase security in this country

What is NATO?

The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

• An alliance of 32 European and North American member states first established in 1949 after WW2

• Focus on safeguarding “Freedom and Security” for member states. This is achieved through political and military means

• Politically, NATO promotes democratic values and encourages cooperation between member states on defence and security issues

• Militarily, NATO has the principle of “collective defence” which means that an armed attack against 1 member state is considered as an attack all members so NATO will respond

• NATO will attempt to achieve peaceful resolution. However NATO can instigate military action beyond peacekeeping if diplomacy fails

• NATO doesn’t have its own armed forces and instead relies on the armed forces of its members to carry out an operation or mission. NATO has a common defence budget and sets its members a target of spending at least 2% of their GDP on defence

What are NGOs?

Non-profit organisations that operate independently of any government or business

• Many provide humanitarian aid in conflict zones and can finance sustainable development projects working with communities using a bottom-up approach

• Can also work in cooperation with intergovernmental organisations

What is the role of the national government in global governance?

• Involves cooperation between different organisation and the national government

• The national govt.’s sovereign powers must be respected

• Important for success of any strategies and is more likely to gain cooperation from citizens

• Help to unify the nation following conflict

What can a typical response/ intervention to a conflict look like? e.g. in Afghanistan

• During conflict, NGOs/ UNHCR set up refugee camps. Military intervention by NATO supported by UN resolutions

• UN peacekeeping force installed once conflict is over, working with local army/ police

• Post conflict reconstruction. Assistance provided by World Bank possibly working with NGOs and TNCs

What are the flows of people in geopolitical intervention?

• Movement of UN and NGO workers into conflict zones

• Moving in UN/ NATO peacekeeping forces for security and protection

• Movement of refugees and IDPs

What are the flows of money in geopolitical intervention?

• Humanitarian aid

• Providing peacekeeping troops with weapons and equipment

• Post conflict reconstruction

What are the flows of technology in geopolitical intervention?

• Sharing of intelligence using ICT

• Virtual surveillance and monitoring by satellite and drones

• International databases to manage the help needed

• Social network services to locate missing family and friends

• Use of satellite images to locate safe areas for refugee camps

What is the timeline for the key events in Afghanistan’s history?

• 1996-2001= Taliban control 90% of Afghanistan. President Rabbani forced to run his government from exile. Start of Afghan war

• Sept 2001*= US led invasion following 9/11

• Dec 2001= UN established the ISAF and become directly involved. Hamid Karzai is chosen as Afghan’s interim leader by leading Afghan political figures and with approval from UN

• 2004= First democratic elections held and installed Hamid Karzai as first elected president

• 2003- Dec 2014= NATO takes over the running of Afghanistan military operations from the UN

• From Jan 1, 2015= Major NATO combat operations ended and withdrawal of troops begins. Afghan National Security forces (ANSF) given full responsibility of security in the country. Some 10,000 NATO troops remain to train, advise and assist the ANSF

• 2003- Aug 2021= Taliban insurgency

• Feb 2020= Peace deal (the Doha Agreement) signed between the US and the Taliban. NATO occupation will end if Taliban agree or not to form an alliance with terrorist groups that would threaten the security of the US or its allies

• May 2021= The Taliban began its offensive into Afghan Govt.- controlled territory, simultaneous with the withdrawal of most US troops from Afghanistan

• 15 Aug 2021= Following the Fall of Kabul, Ashraf Ghani flees to the UAE and the Afghan govt. collapses. The Taliban take control establishing the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan once again- almost 20 years after their fall in 2001

*Whilst the Twin Towers attack in 2001 resulted in the USA invasion in Afghanistan to destroy Al Qaeda and remove the Taliban from power, it was not UN backed

What is state sovereignty?

The govt. has absolute authority over all its citizens within its border

ISSUES IN AFGHANISTAN:

• Taliban rule in 1996 onwards

• US invasion

• UN/ NATO intervention

• Taliban insurgency

• Taliban takeover in August 2021

What is territorial integrity?

That no state can interfere and legally change another state’s borders. The state also has full control over its borders and the territory within its borders

How does Afghanistan lack territorial integrity which has affected state sovereignty?

• The Durand Border between Afghanistan and Pakistan has open borders with little security= weakens territorial integrity

• Created by Mortimer Durand (a British civil servant during the time of British rule of India) and sliced the Pashtun tribe in 2= tension

• Large section of the border divides Afghanistan and FATA (Federally Administered Tribal Area)- a largely lawless and mountainous area of Pakistan

• Taliban able to escape to FATA after being driven from country by NATO

• However, lack of territorial integrity meant Taliban insurgents could move freely between A and P and carry out attacks against Afghan. govt.

What are the global governance strategies used in Afghanistan?

• UN/ NATO intervention

• UNHCR intervention

• Caritas

• Afghanaid

Tell me about the global governance strategies used by UN/ NATO intervention

• In Dec 2001 the UN established ISAF (International Security Assistance Force) who were taken over by NATO in Aug 2003

• ISAF objectives were: to protect Afghan people, to build the capacity of Afghan security forces, to counter the insurgency, to enable the delivery of stronger governance and development

• UN/ NATO helped set up the Afghan National Security Force (ANSF), providing them with training and military equipment. In Jan 2015, ANSF took over full security responsibility from NATO

• Initial aim= secure Kabul and surrounding area fromTaliban threats and to support the Afghan Transitional Govt. led by Hamid Karzai

• At the peak (2011-2012) over 51 partner nations and 130,000 troops (mostly from USA and UK) were involved in ISAF

• Solved sovereignty issues by: protecting elections from Taliban threats, built ANSF who took control of security in 2015, and helped govt. provide security (allow reconstruction and humanitarian aid- enforced opium ban)

Tell me about the global governance strategies used by UNHCR

• Dealt with the plight of the Afghan refugees

• In 2001, there were 6 million refugees (approx. 40% of Afghan pop)

• Most refugees headed to safety in the neighbouring Muslim countries of Pakistan and Iran

• Set up refugee camps e.g. Kacha Garhi refugee camp in Pakistan providing place for 70,000 Afghan refugees

• Devlivered humanitarian aid to refugees and worked with NGOs such as MSF (Médecins Sans Frontier) and Oxfam within the refugee camps to provide food, clothing, clean drinking water and medicines

What are the short term responses by UNHCR to the problems in Afghanistan?

• Refugees arrive in poor health and are at high disease risk= UNHCR will work with NGOs to set up health care e.g. vaccinations, medicines, maternity care etc

• Refugees arrive with few possessions= UNHCR give refugees a welcome kit e.g. stove, food rations, tent, blanket and clothes, which provides them protection

• More than half of refugees are under 18= Education is basic human right for all children and gives them a sense of security and hope. UNICEF’s school in a box is where materials for an entire classroom are packed into a portable box

• Piles of rubbish create unhealthy living conditions= UNHCR provide equipment such as collection bins, including those for recycling. UNHCR will also run projects where refugees can earn money by collecting recyclable waste

• Rivers and streams are unsafe to drink from= UNHCR will put in standpipes to provide drinking water from groundwater sources. They will also work with NGOs

What are the longer term responses by UNHCR to help repatriation of Afghan citizens?

Since 2002, Afghan refugees were returning home and UNHCR switched its focus to repatriation. The UN brokered the Solutions Strategy

• First drafted in 2012 and had the aim of: helping Afghans with cash grants ($200 per family member from UNHCR), job training in UNHCR refugee camps, aid to Pakistan and Iran

• Involved Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran and UNHCR

• Positives= 20% of total population returned before 2021

• Negatives= still struggled with access to adequate housing, food supplies, education, healthcare once resettled

What are the longer term responses by UNHCR to improve living conditions of returnees?

Funded schemes aimed at improving homes for returnees once they were in Afghanistan

• UNHCR collaborated with IKEA to fund >7— Refugee Housing Units- flat pack shelters to replace canvas tents

• ‘Cash for Shelter’- UNHCR provided cash and technical help to the returnees so that they could then self-build their own homes. This scheme benefitted 600 families

Tell me about the global governance strategies used by Caritas

• Is an NGO made up of a confederation of Catholic relief agencies which delivers humanitarian aid and social services to the poor and operates in 165 countries

• Caritas runs poverty relief projects in Pakistan to support Afghan refugees

• UNHCR had only worked with refugees inside its camps. However, Caritas has local knowledge of refugees living in Pakistani cities

• UNHCR worked closely with Caritas to share knowledge. The UNHCR was made aware of 8000 Afghan families living in Pakistani cities. This collaboration of UNHCR and Caritas had already helped 2000 Afghan families to be voluntarily repatriated to their homeland

Tell me about the global governance strategies used by Afghanaid

• A British NGO which works with rural communities in Afghanistan

• Focuses on sustainable development projects which empower the poor in rural communities- use a bottom-up approach where they listen to community and find out what is needed. Their community projects also use appropriate technology e.g. low cost, simple to use and affordable

• However, limited success as only been able to help rural areas which are safe for NGO workers to go- also fuelled discontent as unsafe areas left without help

• Afghan women were taught to sew= given training and equipment, and saved to buy more machines and now run seamstress school to teach others in the village

• Afghan men taught bee keeping skills= used loan to buy beehive- now produces honey on a bigger scale and teaches others in community

• Community development councils= crucial role in empowering local communities, driving local development decision making including access to basic services and social grants to vulnerable households

What are the long term and short term global governance strategies used by UN/ NATO in Afghanistan?

Short-term strategies:

• ISAF initially set up by UN in Dec 2001

• Counter Taliban insurgency

• Make areas safe and secure to allow for non-state actors to carry out development projects to rebuild/ improve infrastructure

Long-term strategies:

• NATO took over control of ISAF from 2003-2014

• Main purpose was to train Afghan National Security Forces who took over full responsibility from 1 Jan 2015

• Support govt. in enforcing rule of law and upholding human rights

• Assists with running of democratic and fair elections

• Counter Taliban insurgency

What are the long term and short term global governance strategies used by UNHCR in Afghanistan?

Short-term strategies:

• Set up refugee camps and provided humanitarian aid and emergency relief

Long-term strategies:

• Since 2002, UNHCR shifted focus towards repatriation and longer-term development projects as part of the Solutions Strategy

• Encashment centres which have been set up to help refugees return home. Each family received a $200 cash grant once returned to homeland

• 700 refugees housing units constructed across Afghanistan

• 600 Afghan families benefited from Cash for Shelters

What are the long term and short term global governance strategies used by Caritas in Afghanistan?

Short-term strategies:

• Runn poverty relief projects in Pakistan to support Afghan refugees

• Has local knowledge to be able to contact Afghan refugees

Long-term strategies:

• Worked closely with UNHCR and have already helped 2000 Afghan families return home as part of the repatriation process

What are the long term global governance strategies used by Afghanaid in Afghanistan?

Long-term strategies:

• Gave training so people got jobs= made them happiers so likely to support the govt. and less likely to support Taliban

• Target Afghanistan’s rural poor and funds long term community led development projects which empowers locals e.g.

> kitchen gardens- provided seeds, tools and training to be self-sufficient

> expertise and funding to build vital infrastructure in over 3000 villages

> a woman taught how to sew. Provided with a sewing machine and saved to buy other machines and now runs a seamstress school to teach other women in village how to sew

> men can get loans to buy beehive and produce honey. Surplus honey can be sold at a market for extra income. Enables honey on a bigger scale and teaches others in the community how to do beekeeping

What are the long term and short term global governance strategies used by the Afghan govt. in Afghanistan?

Short-term strategies:

• A transition to democracy began. In 2004 first elections were run

• Hamid Karzai as interim leader (2001-2004) reestablished political control in Dec 2001

• Hamid Karzai collaborated with UN. ISAF increased security, initially in Kabul. ISAF also set up and trained with ANSF to strengthen state apparatus

Long-term strategies:

• Democracy restored with first election held in 2004 and every 5 years thereafter

• Hamid Karzai collaborated with UNHCR, Pakistan and Iran on successful repatriation of refugees under the Solution Strategy, first drafted in 2012

• Opium farming was made illegal. Farmers encouraged to grow alternative cash crops e.g. wheat and pomegranate

• The 2004 constitution was adopted which represented the supreme law of the country. It restored gender equality; freedom of speech and protection for ethnic minority groups; and a right to democracy with an elected president and parliament every 5 years= strengthen rule of law

• The Afghan govt. collaborated with UN, NATO and NGOs which enabled reconstruction and development projects to take place in areas made safe by NATO troops. Aim to improve access to services and to empower local communities

• Afghan govt. collaborated with NATO to strengthen the rule of law. For example, NATO made bilateral agreement with Afghan govt. to train and provide military equipment to the ANSF. In Jan 2015, the ANSF took over full responsibility for the security of the country with only a reduced NATO presence to remain in an advisory and assistance role

What are the positive/ negative short/ long term consequences of global governance for local communities over time?

Positive short-term:

• Humanitarian aid and assistance to refugees and IDPs

• UN sets up ISAF which provided security and protection of civilians

• Refugee camps provide a safe haven in Pakistan and Iran following US led invasion in 2001

Positive long-term:

• Re-establishing state authority and state apparatus. Hamis Karzai initially appointed as interim Afghan leader in Dec 2001 but is elected as President in 2004

• Newly adopted constitution of Afghanistan streghtened rule of law so that it upheld human rights

• NATO troops helped establish safe areas within Afghanistan for post conflict reconstruction

• Since 2002, Afghanistan was deemed safer so repatriation and assistance to refugees back to their homeland

• Hamid Karzai is elected as president in 2004 which helps restore sovereignty and territorial integrity according to international law

• Afghanaid gave training so people got jobs. This made them happier so more likely to support govt. and less likely to support the Taliban

• Transition to democracy and fair elections made possible by NATO troops and ANSF

Negative short-term:

• 170,000+ deaths including troops, insurgents and civilians due to fighting between insurgents and NATO troops

Negative long-term:

• Escalation of violence from Taliban insurgents from 2003 onwards. IDPs and refugees forced to flee to mainly Pakistan and Iran

What are the opportunities arising from global governance (growth and development)?

1. To improve state sovereignty

2. Reconstruct post war

3. Increase socio-economic development

What are the challenges arising from global governance (sovereignty issues)?

1. State fragility

2. Lack of support for the govt. due to poverty in rural areas

3. An escalation of Taliban insurgency

4. An inadequate state govt. and state apparatus e.g. only a weak security force in ANSF

How did global governance bring about the opportunity of improving state sovereignty?

UN/NATO intervention helped improve state sovereignty in Afghanistan

• Supported transition to democracy- 2004= first democratic election (Hamid Karai). ISAF supported electoral process by assisting ANSF

• Strengthen state apparatus as ISAF helped create conditions whereby the Afghan govt. would be able to exercise authority throughout the country. Developing professional, capable, self-sustaining Afghan National Security Forces at centre of ISAF efforts + core mission of NATO training mission in Afghanistan

How did global governance bring about the opportunity of post war reconstruction?

Post war reconstruction in areas made safe can create a PME

• Need both development and security to support the country= mutualistic

• Increased security in Afghan cities has increased economic development resulting in PME

> Improved security in NATO held areas such as Lashkargah in Helmand Province

—> Local businesses began to flourish due to greater confidence

—> Growth of local businesses means supply firms grow including haulage firms. Creates a PME

—> Employment increases, increasing spending power and boosting business sales

—> Greater wealth leads to greater taxation leading to increased funding of local police and army —> beginning

How did global governance bring about the opportunity of increasing socio-economic development?

• Afghanistan’s GDP per capita increased since 2001 until 2012 then decreased slightly

• Peaked at $680 per capita

• GDP per capita grew x6 in the period 2001-2017

• Number of refugees and IDPs fell from 6 million in 2001 to 1.1 million in 2016 as economic growth and political stability meant Afghan refugees felt safe to return home

> UN/NATO set up ISAF for increased security for civilians. Supported govt. by assisting with democratic elections and strengthening state apparatus with ANSF= economic growth and political stability= refugees felt safe

> UNHCR and Caritas= provided aid and training to Afghan civilians and refugees. Worked closely to help Afghan families return home. Set up encashment centres and funded schemes to imrpove homes

• Bween 2001 and 2016 life expectancy rose by 12 years, children enrolled in primary school increased from 21% to 97% and literacy rate for women doubled

> UN/NATO= removed Taliban by UN/NATO peacekeeping troops= allowed elections and new stable govt. Constitution that fits in with UN norms of basic human rights e.g. gender equality

> Afghanaid= taught people skills to pass on to community. Difference to lives of people in rural areas. Basic needs met as a result of greater income

> UNHCR improved SOL with housing schemes

How did global governance bring about the challenge of Afghanistan remaining a fragile state?

• Between 2006-2023, Afghanistan was identified as world’s 6th most fragile state with a state fragility score of 106/120= a country could collapse and is prone to conflict

• Even at best in 2006, state fragility score was still 100/120

• Even in 2014, despite international investments, Afghanistan is still unstable- has problems like drugs, corruption and extremism. No visible change in SOL. Number of refugees and IDPs increase as poverty + unemployment- govt. failed with social services. Insecurirty has worsened the economy and aid has been wasted. Corruption increased and reconstruction hasn’t happened

Why was Afghanistan’s state fragility score high at 100/120 despite global governance?

• Weak govt.= Taliban carried out attacks (Taliban insurgents)

• Weak economy with little industry= 40% unemployment

• Poor quality human resources= 55% of pop under poverty line. Widespread hunger + malnourishment. Literacy rate low due to destruction from war + Taliban banning girls going to school

• Inability to exploit natural resources= mainly agricultural. 6% of land cultivated due to pop loss from rural areas

• Poor access to international trade + global supply chain= landlocked, insecurity + poor transport infrastructure

• Weak security= army being trained by NATO forces

How did global governance bring about the challenge of failing to provide support for rural farmers?

Lack of support for rural farmers is a key failure of global governance as:

• LIDC so most workers are farmers (35% farmers)

• Farmers grew opium under Taliban reign

• Made illegal by ISAF- had to grow unprofitable crops

• Want Taliban back as opium was more profitable

• Taliban gain support in rural areas

How did global governance bring about the challenge of an escalation of violence by Taliban insurgents?

• Despite over 20 years of global governance, Taliban insurgency increased from 2003 onwards

• Terrorist attacks such as suicide bomb attacks in Kabul were mounted to undermine sovereignty of the elected government

• NATO troops were drawn into fighting back the insurgents

• Over 170,000 Afghans are estimated to have been killed in conflict- 30,000 wounded

How did global governance bring about the challenge of weak security force?

• As part of the Doha Agreement, all NATO troops started their withdraw on 1 May 2021 with the aim of being fully out by 11 Sept 2021. As part of the agreement with the USA, the Taliban agreed they wouldn’t form any alliance with a terrorist group which would threaten USA security and its allies. However in May 2021, Taliban began its offensive into Afghan Govt.-controlled territory. Taliban forces able to rapidly defeat ANSF in just 10 days after the start of the NATO withdraw. This is despite NATO spending £64 billion on security measures since 2003, including providing training and equipment to ANSF

• Taliban have 80,000 troops compared to 300,700 ANSF troops and still managed to defeat ANSF in a matter of days. ANSF was dependent on NATO support and was poorly led + had corruption, whereas Taliban had a motivated ideology. ANSF also lacked knowledge to maintain aircraft + vehicles once US military withdrew

What is the Taliban like today?

• By 15 August 2021, Kabul was captured, Ashraf Ghani fled to UAE and the Afghan govt. collapsed

• Many policies under the Taliban’s previous rule have been restored including oppression of women/girls

• 80% of international funding has been lost due to widespread disapproval of the regime and food insecurity is widespread

• Hospitals do not have enough medication/ staff to treat curable diseases which is also leading to an increase in child deaths

Give a summary of global governance in Afghanistan

• Global governance in Afghanistan became necessary from Dec 2001 following removal of Taliban

• Global governance of sovereignty issues in Afghanistan has been carried out by organisations at various scales, including the UN, NATO, NGOs and the Afghan govt.

• Short-term global governance in Afghanistan (approx 2001-2002) focused on providing humanitarian aid to the displaced, maintaining peace and protecting human rights

• Longer-term global governance (approx 2003- Dec 2021) aimed to strengthen sovereignty by fostering growth and development opportunities

• The consequences of global governance included both positive and unintended negative impacts which varied across local, regional, and national scale

• Throughout this period of global governance, sovereignty issues remained a challenge in Afghanistan e.g. state fragility, Taliban insurgency and an inadequate state govt. and state apparatus