U5: China

Qing Dynasty

The final imperial dynasty of China (1644–1912), which faced internal rebellion and foreign imperialism before its collapse.

Balance of Trade

The difference in value between a country's imports and exports; China historically maintained a surplus until the opium trade shifted it.

Trade Surplus

When a country exports more than it imports.

Trade Deficit

When a country imports more than it exports.

Indemnity

Security or protection against a loss; specifically, the massive payments China was forced to pay following military defeats.

Extraterritoriality

The right of foreigners to be protected by the laws of their own nation while living in China.

Opium Wars

Conflicts triggered by British opium smuggling, resulting in "Unequal Treaties" that favored Western powers.

Treaty of Nanjing

The 1842 treaty ending the first Opium War; it forced China to open ports, pay indemnities, and cede Hong Kong.

Taiping Rebellion

A massive peasant uprising (1850–1864) against the Qing that resulted in 20–30 million deaths and severely weakened the central government.

Self-Strengthening Movement

A late-Qing effort to adopt Western technology and industry while maintaining traditional Confucian values.

Sino-Japanese War (1894-95)

A conflict where Japan defeated China, revealing China's military weakness and leading to the loss of Taiwan.

Sphere of Influence

An area in which a foreign nation maintains sole investment or trading rights.

Open Door Policy

A U.S. proposal that all nations should have equal opportunities to trade in China.

Boxer Rebellion

A violent 1900 anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising supported by the Qing; its defeat led to further foreign occupation.

”Three Principles of People”

Sun Yixian’s ideology

Xinhai Revolution

The 1911 revolution that overthrew the Qing Dynasty and established a republic.

Republic

A form of government in which power is held by the people and their elected representatives; China became one in 1912.

Sun Yixian (Sun Yat-sen)

The "Father of Modern China" and first provisional president of the Republic.

Guomindang (KMT)

The Nationalist Party founded by Sun Yixian and later led by Chiang Kai-shek.

Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

Founded in 1921, it eventually won the civil war under Mao Zedong to rule mainland China.

May 4th Movement

A 1919 student-led protest against the Treaty of Versailles and foreign imperialism that sparked modern Chinese nationalism.

Warlordism

A period (1916–1928) where local military leaders controlled various regions of China in the absence of a strong central government.

21 Demands

A list of ultimatums issued by Japan in 1915 to gain regional dominance over China.

Vanguard

Elite leaders of a communist revolution; the CCP acted as the vanguard for the peasantry.

Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi)

Leader of the Nationalist Party who fought both the Communists and the Japanese.

Mao Zedong

Leader of the CCP who adapted Marxism to the Chinese peasantry and founded the People’s Republic of China.

The Long March

A 6,000-mile retreat by the CCP to escape Nationalist forces, which helped Mao consolidate power and gain peasant support.

Invasion of Manchuria

Japan's 1931 seizure of northeast China, marking the start of Japanese aggression leading into WWII.

The “Rape of Nanjing”

A period of mass murder and war crimes committed by Japanese troops against the residents of Nanjing in 1937.

Chinese Civil War

The conflict between the KMT and CCP, paused during WWII but ending in a CCP victory in 1949.

Republic of China

The government established in 1912, which retreated to Taiwan after 1949.

People’s Republic of China

The communist state established on the mainland by Mao in 1949.

Great Leap Forward

Mao's 1958 plan to rapidly industrialize and collectivize agriculture, which resulted in a massive famine.

Cultural Revolution

A 1966–1976 movement to purge "capitalist" elements and enforce Maoist orthodoxy.

Four Olds

Old Customs, Old Culture, Old Habits, and Old Ideas, which the Red Guards targeted for destruction.

Red Guards

Student-led paramilitary groups who carried out the purges of the Cultural Revolution.

Deng Xiaoping

The leader after Mao who introduced market reforms ("Four Modernizations") while maintaining strict political control.

One Child Policy

A population control policy (1979–2015) aimed at slowing China's rapid growth.

Tiananmen Square Protests

1989 student-led demonstrations for democracy that were ended by a violent military crackdown.

Tank Man

An unidentified man who stood alone before a column of tanks, symbolizing individual resistance against state oppression.

Western Power

Westerners used "gunboat diplomacy," winning wars (Opium Wars) to force "unequal treaties" that granted them ports and legal immunity.

Opium Wars

Britain began smuggling opium into China to reverse a trade deficit, leading to Chinese crackdowns and a British military response.

Internal Weakness

The Taiping Rebellion decimated the population and economy, while corruption and poverty left the Qing unable to resist foreign pressure.

Reformers

Reformers launched the Self-Strengthening Movement to modernize the military and industry while attempting to preserve traditional culture.

Qing Fall

A combination of foreign imperialism, internal rebellions (Boxers/Taiping), and the 1911 Xinhai Revolution led to the dynasty's collapse.

Coping with Division

China struggled through the Warlord Era and attempted to unify under the Guomindang, often forming uneasy alliances with Communists to fight Japan.

May 4th Movement

Anger over warlord instability and the betrayal of Chinese interests to Japan in the Treaty of Versailles sparked this nationalist protest.

CCP Survival

The Communists used the Long March to retreat to the countryside, where they built a strong base by promising land reform to peasants.

Japanese Invasion

The common threat of Japan forced the Nationalists and Communists into a "United Front," temporarily pausing the Civil War.

China-Japan Rivalry

Conflicts like the Sino-Japanese War (1894) and the brutal 1937 invasion established deep-seated historical resentment.

Communist Revolution

Successes included national unification and improved literacy/health; failures included the Great Leap Forward famine and Cultural Revolution chaos.

Cold War Shifts

China moved from a close alliance with the USSR to a "Sino-Soviet split," eventually pursuing a strategic opening with the U.S. in the 1970s.

Great Leap Forward

It caused the "Great Chinese Famine" (millions dead) due to poor planning, exaggerated crop yields, and focus on backyard steel production.

Launching Cultural Revolution

Mao launched it to reclaim power from "pragmatists" and to prevent China from following a "revisionist" (Soviet-style) path.

Life in Cultural Revolution

Education stopped, families were divided, and intellectuals were persecuted, leading to a "lost generation" and social chaos.

Mao’s Vision vs. New Leaders

Deng Xiaoping kept Mao’s political authoritarianism but abandoned his socialist economics in favor of "Market Socialism".

One Child Policy

Enacted to prevent overpopulation from hindering economic growth; long-term effects include an aging population and a gender imbalance.

Tiananmen Square

Sparked by the death of reformer Hu Yaobang and desire for political freedom; it symbolized the clash between economic reform and political repression.