personality exam 3

major features of behavioral approach to personality - skinner

personality is a collection of learned behaviors shaped by environmental reinforcement, punishment, and conditioning, focusing only on observable behavior

classical conditioning - skinner

A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus, eventually triggering the same automatic response.

• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): naturally causes a response (food)

• Unconditioned response (UCR): natural reaction (salivation)

• Conditioned stimulus (CS): previously neutral (bell)

• Conditioned response (CR): learned response (salivation to bell)

how can classical conditioning be applied to personality? - skinner

personality traits can develop from learned emotional associations that create stable patterns of responding to people and situations (Watson/Pavlov)

emotional conditioning - skinner

learning an emotional response (like fear, joy, or anxiety) through associations between a stimulus and an emotional event

ex: Loud noise (natural fear) + white rat → repeated pairing; Later: white rat alone → fear response

skinner’s view of personality

Skinner thought the idea of personality was superfluous and meaningless. What we understand as personality is really a series of responses to factors in the environment

Personality is just individual diff. in behavior that are relatively constant across time and situations bc they have been reinforced by rewards and punishments

operant conditioning - skinner

a learning process where behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences (reinforcement or punishment)

acquisition - skinner

the phase in which a behavior is first established and strengthened through reinforcement

ex: dog training

• Dog learns to sit because it gets a treat each time

• Sitting behavior increases over repeated rewards

shaping - skinner

reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior until the full behavior is learned

ex: reward babbling → then words → then full sentences

extinction - skinner

the reduction and eventual disappearance of a learned behavior when reinforcement is no longer provided

ex: dog training

• A dog used to get treats for sitting

• Treats stop → dog gradually stops sitting on command

discriminative operants - skinner

operant response that is made under one set of circumstances but not under others; If you do a certain behavior now, you’ll likely get a reward (or consequence)

ex: seeing a “Open” sign → you go in and buy food, the sign signals food and service are available

secondary reinforcement - skinner

objects or events that acquire reinforcing properties through their association with primary reinforcers

chaining - skinner

situation in which one response brings the organism into contact with stimuli that (1) reinforce that response and (2) stimulate the next response

reinforcement - skinner

anything that increase the likelihood that a response will be repeated

punishment - skinner

anything that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated 

reinforcement schedules - skinner

1. fixed interval

2. fixed ratio

3. variable interval

4. variable ratio

fixed interval - skinner

Reinforcement happens after a fixed amount of time, first response after that time is rewarded.

Examples:

• Weekly quiz every Friday → studying increases near Friday

• Paycheck every two weeks

• Checking oven more often as cooking time ends

fixed ratio - skinner

Reinforcement happens after a set number of responses.

Examples:

• Getting paid after every 10 items you sell (FR-10)

• A rat gets food after pressing a lever 5 times

• A coffee shop punch card: free drink after 10 purchases

variable interval - skinner

Reinforcement happens after varying time intervals.

Examples:

• Checking email for a reply

• Fishing (catch happens at unpredictable times)

• Pop quizzes at random times

variable ratio - skinner

Reinforcement happens after a changing number of responses (unpredictable).

Examples:

• Slot machines (win after unknown number of pulls)

• Checking social media for likes (unpredictable reward)

• Sales commissions (you don’t know when the next sale comes)

reinforcement contingencies - skinner

1. positive reinforcement

2. negative reinforcement

3. positive punishment

4. negative punishment

postive reinforcement - skinner

Behavior increases because something good is added

Examples:

• Getting a sticker for doing homework

• Receiving praise after answering a question correctly

• Getting money for good grades

negative reinforcement - skinner

Behavior increases because something bad is removed

Examples:

• Buckling your seatbelt to stop the annoying beeping

• Studying to avoid parental nagging

• Taking pain medication to remove pain

postive punishment - skinner

Behavior decreases because something unpleasant is added

Examples:

• Getting scolded for talking in class

• Receiving extra chores for breaking rules

• Getting detention for being late

negative punishment - skinner

Behavior decreases because something good is removed

Examples:

• Losing phone privileges for breaking curfew

• Losing allowance for not doing chores

• Getting grounded after misbehaving

avoidance contingency - skinner

situation in which the organism can easily avoid an aversive stimulus by engaging in appropriate activity

ex: studying hard to avoid failing the exam

contingency contracting - skinner

agreement between two people that when one acts in an appropriate way, the other one gives him/her something of value

ex: student contract

If assignments are completed → extra credit

If not → grade penalty

skinner’s ideas about social utopia (Walden II)

Walden II is problem-free because only positive reinforcement is used

• Skinner thought education would be more beneficial with machines

• Grades foster tardiness, rudeness, daydreaming, etc. bc students want to escape punishment 

• Computers won’t replace teachers, teachers serve as guides for higher level thinking

(also refer to book)

Hull’s theory of learning

learning occurs through drive reduction; behaviors that reduce biological drives are reinforced and become habitual

Dollard and Miller’s view of personality

Personality refers to our habits, which are learned associations between a stimulus and response

4 parts of habit (personality development - dollard and miller

1. drive

2. cue

3. response

4. reinforcement

drive - dollard and miller

the stimulus that compels us to act. drives can be (a) internal [hunger, thirst pain] or external [heat, cold], and (b) primary [directly related to survival] or secondary [learned ways on satisfying primary drives, ex: eating dinner at a specific time]

• Drives are building block of personality, motivation

cue - dollard and miller

specific stimulus that tells us when, where, and how to respond

• Ex: alarm telling you to wake up, yellow light if you’re going to speed up or slow down

response - dollard and miller

your reaction to the cue, aimed at eliminating the drive

• Person might be hungry, see a restaurant sign, go to restaurant 

reinforcement - dollard and miller

anything that increases the likelihood of a particular response. These can be primary or secondary

• Initially neutral stimuli, but gain value when associated with primary reinforcer 

• Ex: Money is secondary

Fear as an Acquired Drive - dollard and miller

refer to book

4 types of conflict - dollard and miller

1. approach-approach

2. avoidance-avoidance

3. approach-avoidance

4. double approach-avoidance

approach-approach conflict - dollard and miller

simultaneously attracted to two goals that have positive values but not compatible; ex: two movies you want to see but can’t choose both

avoidance-avoidance conflict - dollard and miller

two undesirable alternatives and have to choose between them; ex: pick up a hot dish, don’t want to drop it but also don’t want to burn hand; procrastination 

approach-avoidance conflict - dollard and miller

same goal attracts and repels; ex: date is both attractive but obnoxious 

double approach-avoidance conflict - dollard and miller

have to deal simultaneously with multiple goals that attract or repel; ex: choosing between two colleges

• College A: great reputation but expensive and far away

• College B: cheaper and close but less prestigious

Displacement - dollard and miller

refer to book

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis - dollard and miller

refer to book

Unconscious Mind - dollard and miller

refer to book

Mischel’s ideas about the consistency of human behavior

Someone can show the same behavior in similar situations but doesn't mean behavior is same in different situations

Mischel’s ideas about behavioral specificity

your behavior and personality are determined by whatever situation you are in

• You may be patient around parents, but impulsive around friends 

Bandura’s major tenets about reciprocal determinism

personality is the result of interlocking behavioral, environmental, and personal cognitive factors  

• If you believe you’re good at math (personal factor), you study more (behavior), which leads to better grades and teacher praise (environment), which then increases your confidence even more

Mischel’s CAPS model

Our own personality emerges from two things:

• The psychological features of the situation we are in

• Some cognitive, social, effective variables

cognitive social person variables - mischel

1. encoding strategies

2. expectancies

3. subjective values

4. self-regulatory systems and plans

5. competencies

encoding strategies - mischel

what we attend to and how we assign diff. meaning to the stimuli in the environment 

• Elevators may seem scary or normal to others

expectancies - mischel

what we think will happen, based on previous experiences

• If you hear an interviewer likes sophisticated words, you will use sophisticated language to have a higher chance of getting hired

subjective values - mischel

what we determine is worth having or doing

• Another student may care about a paper more than others, getting good grades

self-regulatory systems and plans - mischel

our behavior also depends on our goals for ourselves, and we regulate ourselves to attain these goals

• You’re at a party, some rules you have: greet the host, find closer friends, take of shoes depending on what house, find a pet

competencies - mischel

our behavior depends on what competencies we have that given situation, what we know and what we’re capable of doing

• Opera singer, firefighter, etc. all have different competencies

personality formation via observational learning - bandura

We learn much of our personality through modeling

We rely on modeling for two reasons:

• Trial and error is too costly - driving a car, piloting a plane 

• It would also take too long to selectively reinforce someone's random activities - teaching someone how to speak/do something

observational learning - bandura

1. characteristics of the models

2. characteristics of the observer

3. consequences of the behaviors/outcome expectancy

characteristics of the models - bandura

• Competence - ex: someone you admire say cursing is wrong, you listen; giving right of way to pedestrian who is well-dressed vs. poorly dressed

• Similarity in personal background and physical appearance - ex: children imitate live models more than animated models; we’re most likely to model hostile/aggressive behavior

• Simpler behaviors - ex: we don’t imitate more complex behaviors as quickly 

characteristics of the observer - bandura

• Gender: males tend to imitate males, females emulate the behavior of females

• Self-esteem: those lacking self-esteem are more likely to follow the behavior of a successful model

consequences of the behaviors/outcome expectancy - bandura

We are most likely to imitate behavior we believe will lead to positive outcomes

4 processes in observational learning - bandura

1. attentional processes

2. retentional processes

3. motor reproduction processes

4. motivational processes

attentional processes - bandura

we cannot model or learn unless we pay attention

• Getting exposed to a model doesn’t mean we’ll respond to certain cues

• When learning how to drive we have to be awake and alert 

retentional processes - bandura

we have to encode the behavior and develop a symbolic representation of it

• Vivid/mental image of behavior, use it as basis for our behavior

motor production processes - bandura

we also have to translate these symbolic representations into our own overt behavior

• Learned fundamental aspects of driving from watching someone, but our first attempts may be clumsy and not as perfected 

motivational processes - bandura

you won’t imitate a model unless you have the incentive 

• Involves anticipating reinforcement or avoiding punishment 

• If we see someone get rewarded or punishment, that gives us motivation

motor reproduction processes - bandura

those processes that determine what behavior a person is physically capable of performing

motivational processes - bandura

those processes that determine the circumstances under which learning is translated into behavior

aggression - bandura

Badura argued that the trait of aggression is formed through observational learning

ex: bobo doll

moral conduct - bandura

behavior that is in accordance with internalized moral principles

self-efficacy - bandura

an expectancy or belief about how competently you will be able to perform a behavior in a particular situation

• High: believe you can successfully perform the behavior and deal effectively with events and situations (ex: child who believes they can hit most balls pitched to them)

• Low: believe you are helpless, unable to have control over life events 

delayed gratification - bandura

postponement of a small, immediate reinforcer in order to obtain a larger, more distant reinforcer

ex: kids w/ marshmallows

rotter’s view on personality

behavior is shaped by learned expectations about rewards; personality is influenced by reinforcement history and locus of control (internal vs external)

rotter’s personality model

refer to notes

locus of control - rotter

• Refers to people’s very general, cross-situational beliefs about what determines whether or not they get reinforced in life

• People can be classified along a continuum from very internal to very external

• External: outcomes are guided by fate, luck, or other external circumstances

• Internal: outcomes are guided by personal decisions and efforts

locus of control research - rotter

refer to notes

darwin’s theory of evolution

species change over time through natural selection, where individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those traits on

sociobiology psychology

explains social behavior as genetically influenced traits shaped by natural selection to increase reproductive success and inclusive fitness

evolutionary psychology

the study of how the mind and behavior are shaped by natural selection to solve survival and reproductive problems in ancestral environments

evolutionary psychology theory of human nature

the mind consists of evolved adaptations designed to solve survival and reproductive problems, shaped by natural selection to maximize inclusive fitness

sex differences in long-term v. short-term mating strategies

Short-term mating:

• Men → more willing, less selective

• Women → more selective, higher cost

Long-term mating:

• Men → value fertility/attractiveness

• Women → value resources, stability, commitment

sex differences in deception & jealousy

Jealousy:

• Men → sexual cheating

• Women → emotional cheating

Deception:

• Men → lie about status/resources

• Women → lie about attractiveness/youth

how do evolutionary psychologists view suicide?

They generally see suicide as a maladaptive byproduct of mechanisms that usually support survival and reproduction—not something that evolved “for a purpose.”

how do evolutionary psychologists view murder?

They see murder as an extreme, rare byproduct of mechanisms related to survival and reproduction

how do evolutionary psychologists view kin altruism?

Helping your relatives = helping your own genes survive

Even if you sacrifice time, energy, or resources, your relatives share some of your genes—so helping them increases the chances those genes get passed on.

differences in personality based on EEG testing

Beta (introverts): awake, alert, focused attention, REM sleep, high stimulation

Alpha (extraverts): awake, but non-focused and relaxed, low stimulation

Theta: light sleep, visual imagery

Delta: deep restful sleep, vague dream states

differences in personality based on hemispheric specialization

there are differences in alpha-wave activity between the anterior regions of the right and left cerebral hemispheres, these asymmetries are associated with differences in personality-related emotional experiences

1. Positive moods are associated with higher activation in the anterior left hemisphere

2. Higher activation in the right anterior hemisphere is indicative of negative moods 

differences in personality based on brain injuries

damage to specific brain areas (especially frontal lobes) can alter personality traits like impulse control, emotion, and social behavior

Cloninger’s Tridimensional Model

1. novelty seeking

2. harm avoidance

3. reward dependence

novelty seeking - cloninger

related to low levels of dopamine and MAO

low: calm, prefers routine, cautious

high: impulsive, thrill-seeking, easily bored

harm avoidance - cloninger

related to abnormalities in serotonin metabolism

low: relaxed, risk-taking, confident

high: anxious, cautious, avoids risk

reward dependence - cloninger

results from low levels of norepinephrine

low: independent, less social, not driven by praise

high: seeks approval, warm, keeps working for rewards