AP Psychology Unit 4: Social Psychology

Prototype

A mental example or “best example” of a concept

Algorithm

A step-by-step method used to solve a problem

Priming

Subtle influence on thoughts or behavior from prior exposure to a stimulus

Framing

The way information or an issue is presented

Divergent thinking

Expanding ideas into many possible solutions

Convergent thinking

Narrowing ideas down to one correct solution

Heuristic

Mental shortcut used for quick judgments that may lead to errors

Representativeness heuristic

Judging something based on stereotypes or prototypes

Availability heuristic

Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind

Mental set

Tendency to use previously successful strategies even when not best

Sunk cost fallacy

Continuing something because of past investment of time or effort

Gambler’s fallacy

Belief that past random events affect future probabilities

Functional fixedness

Inability to see new uses for familiar objects

Perception

Organizing and interpreting sensory information

Top-down processing

Using expectations and prior knowledge to interpret stimuli

Bottom-up processing

Using sensory input to build perception from details upward

Schema

Mental framework used to organize and interpret information

Perceptual set

Mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Assimilation

Fitting new information into existing schemas

Accommodation

Changing schemas to fit new information

Gestalt psychology

Idea that the brain organizes information into meaningful wholes

Figure-ground

Organizing vision into objects and background

Proximity

Grouping nearby objects together

Similarity

Grouping similar objects together

Continuity

Perceiving smooth continuous patterns

Closure

Filling in gaps to create a complete image

Emergence

Seeing a whole pattern before recognizing individual parts

Common region

Grouping objects located in the same area

Invariance

Recognizing objects despite transformations

Change blindness

Failure to notice changes in the environment

Inattentional blindness

Failure to notice visible objects when attention is elsewhere

Cocktail party effect

Focusing on one conversation while filtering out others

Explicit memory

Memory that can be consciously recalled and described

Implicit memory

Memory that influences behavior unconsciously

Episodic memory

Memory of personal experiences and events

Semantic memory

Memory of facts and general knowledge

Procedural memory

Memory of how to perform tasks

Long-term potentiation

Strengthening of neural connections through repeated activation

Working memory

Active processing and temporary storage of information

Visuospatial sketchpad

Stores visual and spatial information temporarily

Phonological loop

Temporarily stores verbal and auditory information

Episodic buffer

Integrates information from working memory systems

Central executive

Directs attention and coordinates working memory

Levels of processing model

Memory depends on depth of processing

Structural encoding

Shallow processing based on appearance of words

Phonetic encoding

Processing based on sound of words

Semantic encoding

Deep processing based on meaning of words

Multi-store model

Memory system involving sensory, short-term, and long-term memory

Sensory memory

Brief recording of sensory information

Iconic memory

Brief visual sensory memory lasting about 0.25 seconds

Echoic memory

Brief auditory sensory memory lasting 2–4 seconds

Short-term memory

Temporary storage of limited information

Long-term memory

Relatively permanent and limitless memory storage

Encoding

Getting information into memory

Chunking

Organizing information into meaningful groups

Mnemonic device

Memory aid using associations or patterns

Distributed practice

Studying over time for better retention

Massed practice

Studying all at once; cramming

Primacy effect

Better memory for items at the beginning of a list

Recency effect

Better memory for items at the end of a list

Serial position effect

Tendency to remember first and last items best

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information with cues

Recall

Retrieving information without cues

Relearning

Learning something again faster after previous learning

Overlearning

Continuing to study after mastery is reached

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of information

Effortful processing

Encoding requiring conscious attention

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in memory

Elaborative rehearsal

Linking new information to meaningful ideas

Context-dependent memory

Better recall in the same environment as learning

Mood-dependent memory

Better recall when in the same emotional state

State-dependent memory

Better recall when in the same physical state

Testing effect

Improved memory from retrieving information through testing

Forgetting curve

Rapid forgetting at first that slows over time

Proactive interference

Old information disrupts learning of new information

Retroactive interference

New information disrupts recall of old information

Repression

Unconscious blocking of distressing memories

Source amnesia

Remembering information but forgetting its source

Misinformation effect

Distorted memories caused by misleading information

Infantile amnesia

Inability to recall early childhood memories

Retrograde amnesia

Loss of memories before injury

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories after injury

Dissociative amnesia

Memory loss caused by psychological trauma

Language

System of spoken, written, or signed communication

Phoneme

Smallest unit of sound in language

Morpheme

Smallest meaningful unit in language

Grammar

System of rules for language

Semantics

Rules for deriving meaning from language

Syntax

Rules for arranging words into sentences

Babbling stage

Stage where infants produce meaningless sounds

One-word stage

Stage where children speak mostly single words

Two-word stage

Stage where children use two-word phrases

Telegraphic speech

Early speech using mainly nouns and verbs

Nativist theory

Theory that language ability is biologically innate

Behaviorist theory of language

Language learned through reinforcement and imitation

Critical period

Optimal time window for language learning

Linguistic determinism

Theory that language shapes thought

Intelligence

Ability to learn, solve problems, and adapt

General intelligence (g factor)

Spearman’s idea of one underlying intelligence factor

Multiple intelligences

Gardner’s theory of several independent intelligences