week 3 intelligence

Intelligence

a multifaceted capacity that manifests itself in different ways across the life span. In general, it includes the abilities to:

acquire and apply knowledge

reason logically

plan effectively

infer perceptively

make sound judgments and solve problems

grasp and visualize concepts

pay attention

be intuitive

find the right words and thoughts with facility

cope with, adjust to, and make the most of new s

ituations

positive interpersonal skills

Young children may define “intelligence” in terms that emphasize _________ (such as acting nice, or being helpful or polite).

academic skills

• For older children, more emphasis in the definition will typically be placed on __________ , such as reading well.

Interactionism

 idea that heredity and environment are presumed to interact and influence the development of intelligence

the major thread running through the theories of Binet, Weschler, and Piaget

Francis Galton

• Believed that intelligence is caused by the ability to discriminate between small differences in sensations (sensory acuity)

• “The more perceptive the senses are of difference, the larger is the field upon which our judgment and intelligence can act”

• The first person to publish on the heritability of intelligence

• He viewed intelligence as a number of distinct processes or abilities that could be assessed only by separate tests

• when one solves a particular problem, the abilities used cannot be separated because they interact to produce the solution

• components of intelligence: reasoning, judgment, memory, and abstraction

• Designed and developed tests to identify children who needed special education services

Age Differentiation

refers to the simple fact that one can differentiate older children from younger children

General Mental Ability

• total product of the various separate and distinct elements of intelligence

David Wechsler

• Defined intelligence as the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment

•  It is composed of elements or abilities which, though not entirely independent, are qualitatively differentiable

David Wechsler

Added that there are non-intellective factors that must be taken into account when assessing intelligence

nonintellective factors

capabilities more of the nature of conative, affective, or personality traits that include such traits as drive, persistence, and goal awareness

individual’s potential to perceive and respond to social, moral, and aesthetic values

differentiable abilities

verbal factor and performance factor

• Jean Piaget

• Proposed that intelligence is a kind of evolving biological adaptation to the outside world

• As cognitive skills are gained, adaptation increases

• Mental trial and error replaces physical trial and error

• He believed that the process of cognitive development occurs neither solely through maturation nor solely through learning

• As a consequence of interaction with the environment, psychological structures become reorganized

Factor-Analytic Theories

focus is squarely on identifying the ability or groups of abilities deemed to constitute intelligence

Factor Analysis

• statistical techniques designed to determine the existence of underlying relationships between sets of variables

• Assumption is that things that co-occur tend to have a common cause

• Can help researchers decide how best to summarize large amounts of information about people by using just a few scores

Exploratory analysis

used when exploring or looking for factors

Confirmatory analysis

used to test highly specific hypotheses

Charles Spearman

• Pioneered new techniques to measure intercorrelations between tests

• Developed the two-factor theory of intelligence

Two-Factor Theory Of Intelligence

• intelligence has two components – (g) general intelligence and (s) specific intelligence

  • Tests that exhibited high positive correlation with other intelligence tests were thought to be highly saturated with g

  • Tests with low or moderate correlations with other intelligence tests were viewed as possible measures of specific factors

  • The greater the magnitude of g in a test of intelligence, the better the test was thought to predict overall intelligence

(g) general intelligence and (s) specific intelligence

Two-Factor Theory Of Intelligence: intelligence has two components

general intelligence (g).

If an intelligence test strongly matches other intelligence tests, it is believed to measure a lot of

high in general intelligence or g

High correlation with other IQ tests in spearman two factor theory

specific skill

Low/moderate correlation in spearman two factor → may measure a more

G Factor

• linked to general ability

• represents the portion of the variance that all intelligence tests have in common

S Factor

linked to specific ability

which are specific to one intellectual activity only

overall intelligence

• the greater magnitude of g in an intelligence test, the better the test was thought to predict _______

Group Factors

neither as general as g nor as specific as s

Guilford

believed intelligence is made up of many different mental abilities, not just one general intelligence factor (g).

Gardner

• developed a theory of multiple intelligences

  • Logical-mathematical

  • Bodily-kinesthetic

  • Linguistic

  • Musical

  • Spatial

  • Interpersonal:  ability to understand other people

  • Intrapersonal: correlative ability, turned inward

    • Capacity to form an accurate, veridical model of oneself and to be able to use that model to operate effectively in life

Mayer

• described interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence as emotional intelligence

  • Hypothesized the existence of specific brain modules that allow people to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions intelligently

Raymond B. Cattell

Postulated Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence

crystallized intelligence (Gc)

• include acquired skills and knowledge that are dependent on exposure to particular culture as well as on formal and informal education

• elements include retrieval of information and application of general knowledge

fluid intelligence (Gf)

• nonverbal, relatively culture-free, and independent of specific instruction

• “street smart

John Horn

• Student of Cattell

• Proposed the addition of several factors

  • Visual Processing (Gv)

  • Auditory Processing (Ga)

  • Quantitative Processing (Gq)

  • Speed Of Processing (Gs)

  • Facility With Reading And Writing (Grw)

  • Short-Term Memory (Gsm)

  • Long-Term Storage And Retrieval (Glr)

Vulnerable Abilities

according to John Horn, this declines with age and tends not to return to pre-injury levels following brain damage (Gv)

Maintained Abilities

according to John Horn, this does not decline with age and may return to preinjury levels following brain damage

Horn-Cattell Gf-Gc Theory of Intelligence

• Posits two levels of ability – broad and narrow

• Each broad ability consists of several narrow abilities

• Believed that Spearman’s g was a statistical entity that resulted from the cumulative investment of fluid reasoning into learning

  • Spearman’s g could not account for how different abilities developed over time and responded to disease and trauma

Three-Stratum Theory of Cognitive Abilities

• Developed by John Carroll

• Three levels (strata) are defined as representing narrow, broad, and general cognitive ability

• Hierarchical Model

all of the abilities listed in a stratum are subsumed by or incorporated in the strata above

top stratum or 3rd stratum

g or general intelligence

in what stratum

second stratum

contains broader abilities or eight abilities

• fluid intelligence (Gf)

• crystallized intelligence (Gc)

• general learning and memory (Y)

• broad visual perception (V)

• broad auditory perception (U)

• broad retrieval capacity ®

• broad cognitive speediness (S)

• processing/decision speed (T)

in what stratum

first stratum

• _______ stratum is highly specific and is subsumed in second-level strata which in turn is subsumed in general intelligence

• very specific mental skills.

These are narrow abilities, like:

spelling ability

memory for faces

reaction speed

These specific abilities are grouped under broader abilities in the second stratum.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Model

• blends the Cattell-Horn Theory with Three-stratum theory

• similarities

  • designation of broad abilities that subsume several narrow abilities

• differences

  • existence of g factor

• Carroll → g is third-stratum factor, subsuming the broad, second-stratum abilities

• Cattell-Horn → g has no place in the model 

• abilities labeled “quantitative knowledge” and “reading/writing ability” should each be considered a distinct, broad ability (as in the Cattell-Horn theory)

• Carroll → abilities are first-stratum, narrow abilities

McGrew-Flanagan CHC Model

• features 10 broad stratum abilities over 70 narrow stratum abilities, with each broad-stratum ability subsuming two or more narrow-stratum abilities

• broad stratum abilities

• Gf, Gc, Gq, Grw, Gsm, Gv, Ga, Glr, Gs, and Gt (decision/reaction time or speed)

• makes no provision for the general intellectual ability because it lacked utility in psychoeducational evaluations

• it doesn’t mean that g does not exist, rather g has no relevance in cross-battery assessment and interpretation

Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive Abilities

system for organizing and explaining different kinds of intelligence and cognitive abilities.

It combines:

Raymond Cattell and John Horn’s Gf-Gc model

John B. Carroll’s three-stratum model

It became widely accepted because it gives researchers and test developers a common way to describe intelligenc

Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive Abilities

People process information in different ways, and different brain systems handle different abilities.

Examples:

visual-spatial ability → understanding shapes, maps, patterns

auditory processing → understanding sounds and language

fluid reasoning → solving new problems and learning complex ideas

The theory says:

intelligence is not just one single skill

different abilities affect how we learn and think

people with high fluid reasoning learn faster and handle harder ideas better

Edward Lee Thorndike

• Developed a Multi-Factor Theory of Intelligence

• Believed that intelligence can be conceived in terms of three clusters of ability – social intelligence, concrete intelligence, and abstract intelligence

Multi-Factor Theory of Intelligence

Edward Lee Thorndike Developed a

social intelligence, concrete intelligence, and abstract intelligence

three clusters of ability - Multi-Factor Theory of Intelligence

abstract intelligence

capturing what tests of intelligence measure

• dealing with verbal and mathematical symbols

social intelligence

reflective of the degree of success in functioning in interpersonal situations

dealing with people

concrete intelligence

• related to visualizing relationships among objects and understanding how the physical world works

• dealing with objects

Edward Lee Thorndike - Multi-Factor Theory of Intelligence

• Also incorporated a general mental ability factor into the theory

• One’s ability to learn is determined by the number and speed of the bonds that can be marshaled

Information-Processing Theories

focus is on identifying the specific mental processes that occur when intelligence is applied to solving a problem

Aleksandr Luria

•  proposed two basic types of information-processing styles, simultaneous and successive, have been distinguished

simultaneous or parallel processing

• information is integrated all at one time

• tasks that involve the simultaneous mental representations of images or information involve simultaneous processing

  • example: map reading and appreciating art in a museum

successive or sequential processing

• each bit of information is individually processed in sequence

• logical and analytic in nature; piece by piece and one piece after another

• information is arranged and rearranged so that it makes sense

• E.g.  learning the spelling of a new word, solving a riddle, memorizing a telephone number

PASS Model of Intellectual Functioning

Naglieri and Das: proposed this model

Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive

pass model

planning

strategy development for problem solving

Attention

• receptivity to information

simultaneous and successive

type of information processing employed in pass model

Robert Sternberg

• Developed the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

• Proposed 3 types of intelligence

  • practical

  • analytical

  • creative

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

theory ?

• 3 types of intelligence

  • Practical: ability to find solutions that work in everyday life (“street smarts”)

  • Analytical: closely aligned with academic problem solving and computations

  • Creative: inventing or imagining a solution to a problem or situation

Practical intelligence

ability to find solutions that work in everyday life (“street smarts”)

Analytical intelligence

• closely aligned with academic problem solving and computations

Creative

• inventing or imagining a solution to a problem or situation

measurement of intelligence

entails sampling an examinee’s performance on different types of tests and tasks as a function of developmental level

Measuring Intelligence in Infancy

• Intellectual assessment consists primarily of measuring sensorimotor development

• Rely to a great degree on information obtained from a structured interview with the examinee’s caretakers

Measuring Intelligence in Older Children

• Assessment  shifts to verbal and performance abilities

• Administration of many of the items may be preceded with teaching items designed to provide the examinee with practice in what is required by a particular test item

Measuring Intelligence in Adults

• Should tap abilities such as retention of general information, quantitative reasoning, expressive language and memory, and social judgment

• Tests of intelligence are seldom administered to adults for purposes of educational placement

• Tests may be given to obtain clinically relevant information or some measure of learning potential and skill acquisition

• The theory (if any) on which the test is based

• The ease with which the test can be administered

• The ease with which the test can be scored

• The ease with which results can be interpreted for a particular purpose

• The adequacy and appropriateness of the norms

• The acceptability of the published reliability and validity indices

• The test’s utility in terms of costs versus benefits

Considerations in Assessing a Test’s Appeal

Alfred Binet

• Collaborated with Theodore Simon in developing a test to screen for children with developmental disabilities in the Paris schools

original Binet-Simon Scale

• Considered as the  world’s first formal test of intelligence in 1905

• was in use in the United States as early as 1908

• By 1912 a modified version had been published that extended the age range of the test downward to 3 months

• The test was translated to English and extended by Lewis Terman

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales: First Edition

○ major flaws → lack of representativeness of

the standardization sample

○ innovations

- first published intelligence test to provide

organized and detailed administration and

scoring instructions

- first test to employ the concept of IQ

- first test to introduce alternate item → item

to be substituted to regular item under

specified conditions (such as when test user

failed to properly administer the regular item)

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales - First Edition

• major flaws → lack of representativeness of the standardization sample 

• innovations

• first published intelligence test to provide organized and detailed administration and scoring instructions

• first test to employ the concept of IQ

• first test to introduce alternate item → item to be substituted to regular item under specified conditions (such as when test user failed to properly administer the regular item)

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales : 1937 Revision

• first revision, started revising in 1926 by Lewis Turman and Maud Merrill

• included the development of two equivalent forms → L for Lewis and M for Maud

• new types of tasks for use with preschool-level and adult-level testtakers

• manual contained many examples to aid the examiner in scoring

• technical advancement in validity and especially reliability

• criticism → lack of representation of minority groups during the test’s development

• employed the ratio IQ based on the concept of mental age → age level at which an individual appears to be functioning intellectually as indicated by level of items responded to correctly

• ratio IQ → ratio of the testtaker’s mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100 to eliminate decimals

ratio IQ

ratio of the testtaker’s mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100 to eliminate decimals

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales: 1960 Revision

• second revision, consisted of only a single form (L-M)

• included the items considered to be the best from the two forms of the 1937 test with no new items added

• use of deviation IQ in place of the ratio IQ tables

  • comparison of the performance of the individual with the performance of others of the same age in the standardization sample

  • test performance is converted into a standard score with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 16

deviation IQ

• comparison of the performance of the individual with the performance of others of the same age in the standardization sample

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales 1972 Revision

• third revision, quality of standardization sample was criticized

• manual was vague about the number of minority individuals in the standardization sample

• overrepresented the West, as well as large urban communities

Stanford-Binet: Fourth Edition (SB:FE)

• Before:

Items were grouped by age → called an age scale.

Example:

Questions for 5-year-olds, 6-year-olds, etc.

• Used a point scale .

items were grouped by type/category of skill

not by age

• Example:

memory subtest

reasoning subtest

vocabulary subtest

• The test was based on the Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive Abilities / Cattell-Horn ideas about intelligence.

• It also produced a test composite score, which combines several subtest scores into one overall score.

Fifth Edition (SB-5)

• designed for administration to assessees as young as 2 and as old as 85 (or older)

• yields a number of composite scores:

• Full Scale IQ

derived from the administration of ten subtests

subtest scores have a mean of 10 and SD of 3

• Abbreviated Battery IQ score

• Verbal IQ score

• Nonverbal IQ score

• note: the three have mean of 100 and SD of 15

Fifth Edition (SB-5)

test yields five Factor Index scores corresponding to each of the five factors that the test is presumed to measure based on Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory

Fluid Intelligence (Gf)

Crystallized Intelligence (Gc)

Quantitative Knowledge (Gq)

Visual Processing (Gv)

Short-Term Memory (Gsm)

Fluid Intelligence

(Gf)

novel problem solving;understanding of relationship that are not culturally bound; “streetsmart”

subtests :

Object Series/Matrices (nonverbal) Verbal Analogies (verbal)

Crystallized Intelligence (Gc)

skills and knowledge acquired by formal and informal education

subtest :

Picture Absurdities (nonverbal) Vocabulary (verbal)

Quantitative Knowledge (Gq)

knowledge of mathematical thinking including number concepts, estimation, problem solving, and measurement

subtest:

Verbal

Quantitative

Reasoning

Nonverbal

Quantitative

Reaso

ning

Visual Processing

(Gv)

ability to see pattern & relationships and spatial orientation as well as Gestalt among diverse visual stimuli

Position and Direction (verbal)

Foam Board (nonverbal)

Short-Term Memory (Gsm)

cognitive processes of temporarily storing and then transforming or sorting information in memory

Memory for

Sentences (verbal)

Delayed Response

(nonverbal)

2 - 85

SB5 was designed for administration to assess as young as ___ and old as _____

Routing Test

• a task used to direct or route the examinee to a particular level of questions to direct an examinee to test items that have a high probability of being at an optimal level of difficulty

Teaching Items

• designed to illustrate the task required and assure the examiner that the examinee understands

Basal Age

• highest year level at which the subject successfully passes all tests

SB5 items

are not timed to accommodate test takers with special needs and to fit them with IRT model used to calibrate the difficulty of items

Adaptive Testing

• Exemplary for _______ (testing individually)

  • Ensures that early test or subtest items are not so difficult as to frustrate the test taker and not so easy as to lull the test taker into a false sense of security or a state of mind

  • Allows the test user to collect the maximum amount of information in minimum amount of time

  • Facilitates rapport

  • Minimizes potential for examinee fatigue from being administered too many times

Extra-test Behavior

• the way examinee copes with frustration, reaction to stimulus, amount of support, etc. are observed

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales: Fifth Edition (SB-5)

Standardization

4,800 subjects aged 2-85 and above

no accommodations were made for persons with special needs

persons were excluded from standardization sample if they had limited english proficiency, severe medical conditions, severe sensory or communication deficits, or severe emotional/behavior disturbance

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales: Fifth Edition (SB-5)

reliability

• internal-consistency reliability for Full Scale IQ and Abbreviated Battery IQ. consistently high across age groups

• test-retest reliability coefficients were high. interval was 5-8 days

• inter-scorer reliability were high. items showing especially poor inter-scorer agreement had been deleted during development process

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales: Fifth Edition (SB-5)

validity

• content validity was established from expert input and empirical item analysis

• criterion-related validity

• concurrent validity with SB:FE and Weschler Battery of tests. high correlation with SB:FE and less on Weschler tests (presumably because of varying extents that SB-5 and Weschler test tap g)

• predictive validity was establish with correlations with measures of achievement

• construct validity

• it is not generalizable as questions are raised when it comes to applicability in clinical populations

test administration in Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales: Fifth Edition (SB-5)

• first, examiner establishes rapport

• next, the exam formally begins with an item from a routing test

• task used to direct or route the examinee to test items that have a high probability of being at an optimal level of difficulty

• consists of object series/matrices and vocabulary subtests → only these subtests are administered when computing for Abbreviated Battery IQ score

• contain teaching items → designed to illustrate the task required and assure the examiner that the examinee understands

• not formally scored, and performance on such items in no way enters into calculations of any other scores

basal level

• base-level criterion that must be met for testing on the subtest to continue

• example: examinee answers two consecutive items correctly. when examinees fail a certain number of items in a row, a ceiling level (highest-level item) is said to have been achieved and testing is discontinued