Gov. Final

1st Amendment

Protects freedom of speech, religion, press, and assembly.

2nd Amendment

Protects the right to bear arms

4th Amendment

Protects people from unreasonable search and seizure

5th Amendment

Protects the right to stay silent or to not incriminate yourself

6th Amendment

Protects people’s right to a guaranteed council and fair trial when persecuted.

8th Amendment

Protects freedom from excessive bail, fines, and cruel punishments

14th Amendment

Protects the citizens right’s to equal and due process under the law

Plessy V Ferguson

The origin of the “separate but equal” doctrine - the court ruled to uphold state laws segregating transportation

Brown V Board of Education

Overturned Plessy V Ferguson - the court ruled that “separate but equal” was unequal and unconstitutional and therefore the segregation of public schools was unconstitutional

Barron V Baltimore

The court ruled that only the federal government was bound by the bill of rights and people who have had their rights violated locally must appeal to state and local juries and constitutions

Roe V Wade

The court ruled that Texas’s regulation of abortion and women’s healthcare is unconstitutional and a violation of rights

Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health

Overturned Roe V Wade and eliminated the federal right to abortion

Schenck v. U.S.

The court ruled that not all speech was federally protected and could be regulated if it presented a clear and present danger

Gitlow v. New York

The court ruled that speech could be regulated not only if it presented a clear and present danger but also if it had a “bad tendency” to create turmoil

Brandenburg v. Ohio

The court ruled that in order to regulate or punish speech through the “clear and present danger” clause the state had to prove that the danger was imminent

Judiciary Act of 1789

The first and only upholding basic law for governing courts that has been amended several times - created a system of two-tiered lower courts and six justices at the supreme court

Supreme Court opinions - majority

an appellate opinion supporting the court's judgment (the result reached in the case) is chosen by a majority vote of the justices or judges hearing the case

Supreme Court opinions - minority

The non-majority opinion of the court (If three justices vote 2-1, the one person who voted against the majority two would be considered the minority)

Supreme Court opinions - concurring

an appellate opinion of one or more justices or judges which supports the result reached in a case for reasons not stated in the majority opinion - ex. the justice might agree with the decision but disagree with the reasons behind it

Supreme Court opinions - dissenting

The minority opinion - if one or more justices disagrees with the majority opinion

Reconciliation Process

Created by the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, this allows for expedited consideration of certain tax, spending, and debt limit legislation. In the Senate, these bills aren’t subject to filibuster and the scope of amendments is limited, giving this process real advantages for enacting controversial budget and tax measures.

New Deal

Franklin Roosevelt’s policies to address The Great Depression

Federal Reserve Board and reserve requirements

This organization is the central banking system in the US and is responsible for monetary control and policies. Reserve requirements are monetary requirements within specified ranges for purposes of implementing monetary policy on certain types of deposits and other liabilities of depository institutions

Patriot Act

This law increased national security as a result of the events of 9/11 and in the years since people have questions it’s effectiveness as there has not been terrorist attacks in the US since

Bush Doctrine

The president put sovereignty, national security, preemption, and supremacy at the core of American foreign policy

Income tax

a tax imposed on individuals or taxpayers in respect of the income or profits earned by them (The higher your income, the higher your taxes)

Progressive tax

A tax that takes more from the wealthy than the poor

Regressive tax

A tax that takes more from the poor than the wealthy

Sales tax

A consumption tax on the sale of goods and services

amicus curiae brief

Also known as “friend of the court.” This is an argument filed by a third party interested in a court case but not directly involved or complicit in it

writ of certiorari

A formal request that a case be reviewed by a higher court

the “rule of four”

Four justices must approve a writ of certiorari before it will be reviewed by Supreme Court

Mandatory Budget Items

Required interest spending by the national government including social security, Medicare, and Medicaid

Discretionary Budget Items

Non essential spending items including vacations, entertainment, alcohol, etc

social insurance welfare programs

The program provides monthly benefits designed to replace, in part, the loss of income due to retirement, disability, or death (Ex. supplemental security income, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), etc.)

means-tested welfare programs

A program for which eligibility is based on a determination that income and/or assets of the beneficiary are insufficient to provide the beneficiary with an adequate standard of living without program assistance (Ex. food stamps, Medicaid, etc.)

Office of Management and Budget

OMB - Part of the executive office for the president that provides budgetary expertise, central legislative clearance, and management assistance for the President.

District courts

The 94 general trial courts of the federal judicial system

Courts of appeal

13 courts that farm the intermediate level of the federal judicial system and hear appeals of district courts

the Supreme Court

The highest court and/or last resort of the American judicial system

Education Act of 1972

Includes Title IX, a series of education reforms and amendments for federal funded educational institutions

Title IX

Prohibits sex discrimination in any education program or activity receiving federal financial assistance.

federal surplus

The government has extra money left over after covering all its expenses

Deficits

The government spends more money on its expenses than it earns

Debt

the amount of money owed by the government to its creditors, including individuals, institutions, and foreign governments

GDP (Gross Domestic Product)

A measure of the total monetary value of all finished goods and services produced within a country during a specific period, typically one year, as a way to track a countries economic health and production

Bretton Woods Institutions - World Bank

One of the three Bretton Woods institutions, established in 1944 to provide financial and technical assistance to help developing countries, promote long-term economic development, and reduce poverty

Bretton Woods Institutions - IMF

One of the three Bretton Woods institutions, focuses on monetary policy, surveillance, and lending to member countries experiencing balance of payments difficulties, aiming to support global financial stability and economic growth

Bretton Woods Institutions - WTO

One of the three Bretton Woods institutions, governs global trade rules, ensuring trade flows smoothly and predictably. Its primary purpose is to help its member countries use trade as a means to raise living standards, create jobs, and improve people's lives

the postwar world

Generally involves a series of reconstruction policies and rebuilding militaries, societies, and economies.

The Cold War

a period of political, ideological, and military tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, not involving open military conflict

United Nations

Its primary goal is to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, and cooperate in solving global problems. It also promotes respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It was formed as a result of WW2

common law tradition

The judges follow previous precedents set by previous judges - this establishes unofficial rules that are followed in future cases

civil code tradition

statutes involving legal principals and commands for citizens to understand and obey (Like the responsibilities of citizens)

Criminal law

Prohibits certain actions and prescribes penalties for those who engage in prohibited conduct (Ex. assault, manslaughter, etc.)

Civil Law

Laws dealing with individual or organizational relations (Etc. family, marriage, contracts, etc.)

reverse discrimination

The belief that by creating policies to increase opportunities for minorities, it deals unfair disadvantages to white males or majorities

affirmative action

Policies designed to improve previous discriminatory practices

“separate but equal”

doctrine that allowed for racial segregation in public facilities as long as those facilities were supposedly equal in quality for both Black and White people

fiscal policy

Government policies about taxing, spending, budgets, deficits, and debt

monetary policy

Government decisions on the money supply and interest rates of the banking system

regulatory policy

legislation and bureaucracy rules that impact the performance of individual businesses and the general economy

“clear and present danger”

A legal standard used to determine when the government can restrict speech that is considered a threat to public safety or national security

“establishment” clause

The government can't establish or favor any religion. It prevents the government from creating an official religion or passing laws that support one religion over another, or religion in general

“free exercise” clause

protects the right of individuals to practice their religion without government interference

stare decisis

Judicial principle of relying on past decisions or precedents to devise rulings in later cases

precedent

Previously decided case that provides a basis for deciding similar cases in the future. It acts as a guide for judges when interpreting the law and applying it to new situations with similar facts or issues

civil liberties

Areas of social life that the constitution restricts or prohibits government intervention on (Ex. free speech, free press, etc.)

civil rights

Areas of social life that the constitution requires the government intervene in order to protect (Ex. protection from racial discrimination, the right to vote, etc.)

Wealth inequality

The uneven distribution of assets (like homes, savings, investments) and liabilities (like debts) among individuals, groups, or organizations within a society or country

Symbolic speech

A form of communication where actions or gestures convey a message, often expressing beliefs or ideas, without using spoken or written word

Obscenity

Material that is considered offensive and indecent

Social movements

A loosely organized but sustained effort by a large group of people to achieve a specific social or political goal, often to bring about or resist change

Judicial review

The power of any court to rule that an official rule or law be unenforceable because it conflicts with the constitution

Judicial activism

The practice of judges making rulings based on their policy views rather than their honest interpretation of the current law

Judicial restraint

Courts should limit their involvement in policy matters and defer to the decisions of the legislative and executive branches. It emphasizes respecting the decisions made by elected representatives and avoiding creating new laws through judicial rulings

Original jurisdiction

A court's power to hear and decide a case for the first time, before it is reviewed by a higher court

Appellate jurisdiction

The power of a court to hear appeals from a lower court's decisions. This means the higher court can review the lower court's rulings and potentially reverse, modify, or uphold them

Unreasonable searches and seizures rule

Prohibits the government from conducting searches and seizures without a warrant based on probable cause, or without a valid exception to the warrant requirement

The exclusionary rule

A legal principle in U.S. law that prohibits the use of evidence obtained illegally, or in violation of someone's constitutional rights, in a criminal trial.

Globalization

The increasing interconnectedness and integration of countries and economies worldwide, facilitated by advancements in transportation, communication, and technology

Monopolies

One producer has exclusive control of a market, thus enabling market manipulations and discretionary pricing

Manifest destiny

19th-century belief that the United States was destined by God to expand its dominion across the entire North American continent

Idealism

Belief that nations should focus on promoting their ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity in the world

Isolationism

Non-involvement in international affairs, focusing on domestic concerns and avoiding alliances

Democracy promotion

Domestic policy to increase the quality of already existing democracy or a strand of foreign policy that seek to support the spread of democracy as a system of government

Realism

Belief that the US should focus its attention and resources to protecting and expanding its own national security and prosperity

Traditional conservative econ theory

Also known as fiscal conservatism, emphasizes a strong belief in capitalism, individualism, and limited government intervention in the economy. This theory generally advocates for lower taxes, reduced government spending, free markets, deregulation, and a focus on individual responsibility and free trade

Keynesian econ theory

The believe that, because prices are somewhat rigid, fluctuations in any component of spending—consumption, investment, or government expenditures—cause output to change

Supply-side econ theory

It suggests that reducing taxes and regulations, particularly for businesses, will encourage investment, production, and job creation, leading to overall economic expansion

Monetarist economic theories

It argues that controlling the growth of the money supply is crucial for maintaining price stability and overall economic health

Imperialism

Extending a country's power and influence through military force, economic dominance, and cultural influence over other territories and peoples.