GENERAL BIOLOGY -

GRADE 12 - FINALS

Genetics

is the study of how genes and how traits are passed down from one generation to the next

Heredity

the passage of genetic traits from one generation to the next, also controlled by the chromosomes in the nucleus of cell

Nucleus

is where genes are stored

Genes

unit of heredity in a living organism

Gene

fundemental physical and functional unit of heredity

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

is a very large molecule, made up of smaller units called nucleotides

Genetic engineering

the simple addition, deletion or manipulation of a single trait in an organism to create a desired change

recombinant DNA technology

the joining together of DNA molecules from different organisms and inserting it into a host organism to produce new genetic combinations that are of value to science, medicine, agriculture, and industry

Stanly Cohen and Herbert Boyer

advanced the development of recombinant DNA technology

restriction enzymes

help to cut

polymerases

help to synthesize

ligases

help to bind

endonucleases

cut within the DNA strand

exonucleases

remove the nucleotides from the end of strand

vectors

help carrying and integrating the desired gene

host organism

into which the recombinant DNA is introduced

isolation

starts with the identification of a gene of interest

cutting

restriction enzymes act as molecular scissors and cut DNA at specific sites called restriction sites

insertion and ligation

after getting the target gene, it needs to be inserted into a vector.

ligation

rejoining cut fragments of DNA and forming artifical recombinant molecules

transformation

Recombinant DNA introduced into bacterial cell

expression

getting the organism with the recombinant DNA to produce the desired protein

gene analysis

the development of the polymerase chain reaction allowed scientists to make numerous copies of DNA segment

gene therapy

a form of treatment used to cure conditions that arise from defective absent gene

genetically modified organisms

the objective modifying organisms through manipulation of genes is to enhance characteristics that are favorable for the organism and safe for human consumption

pharming

is a technology that scientists use to alter an animals own DNA

vaccines

genetically engineered microbes

gregor mendel

father of genetics

genetics

the study of how genes determine traits and how these traits are passed down from one generation to the next

trait

a physical characteristic that is inherited from one generation to the next

gene

controls a specific trait

alleles

different versions of a gene

genotype

an organism’s genetic makeuo

phenotype

a physical characteristic that results from the genotype

heredity

the process of transmission of traits from parents to offspring

genetics

branch of biology that deals with heredity and variation of organisms

genome

the entire set of genes in an organism

Homozygous

an individual having identical genes (one from each parent) for a particular characteristics

true breeds

homozygotes are also called

Heterozygous

an individual having two different genes for a particular characteristics.

hybrids

heterozygotes are also called

Monohybrid cross

genetic cross involving a single pair of genes (one trait); parents differ by a single trait

Dihybrid cross

involves mating of parent that differ in two genes (two independent traits)

Punnett Square

useful too to do genetic crosses which predict the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring

Testcross

can tell the genotype of an individual with the dominant phenotype

principle of dominance

this principle states that all offspring will be hybrid for a trait and will have only the dominant trait express a phenotype

law of segregation

this law states that organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent

principle of independent assortment

this principle explains that alleles for different traits are distributed to sex cells

achondroplasia

is a disorder of the bone growth that causes the most common type of dwarfism

brachydactyly

a condition characterized by shortening of the fingers and toes due to unusually short bones

congenital stationary night blindness

disorder of the retina of the eye

ehler-danlos syndrome

a disorder that affects the connective tissue supporting skin, bones, blood vessels, and many other organs and tissues

huntington’s disease

condition that causes progressive degeneration of the cells of the brain

marfan syndrome

connective tissue disorder associated with the abnormal enlargement of the aortic root of the heart, tall and lanky body with increased joint mobility, scoliosis, long flat feet and long fingers

neurofibrosis

disorder having an increased risk of developing many different types of tumors

phenylthiocarbamide

also called as phenylthiourea that has the unusual property that it either tase very bitter or it is virtually tasteless

widow’s peak

characterized with a v-shape hairline

wolly hair

disorder having inconstant degree of tight curling present throughout the scalp

albinism

typically referred to as oculocutaneous, a group of inherited disorder where there is little or no production of the pigment melanin

alkaptonuria

rare genetic metabolic disorder characterized by the accumulation of homogentisic acid in the body

ataxia telangiectasia

Characterized with uncoordinated movement, such as walking, enlarged blood vessels, just below the surface of the skin which appears as tiny, red, spider-like veins

cystic fibrosis

Disorder characterized by the build up of thick, sicky mucus that can damage many of the body’s organs.

duchenne muscular dystrophy

condition characterized by progressive muscle weakness and wasting primarily affects muscle of the bones, which are used for movement and heart muscle

sickle-cell disease

diseases that affects hemoglobin, the molecule in the red blood cells that delivers oxygen to the cell throughout the body

amniocentesis

prenatal test in which a small amount of amniotic fluid is removed from the sac surrounding the fetus for testing

chorionic villus sampling

prenatal test that diagnoses chromosomal abnormalities such as Down Syndrome

ultrasound

scan that uses high frequency sound waves to study internal body structures

fetoscopy

technique that utilizes small camera or scope to examine and perform procedures on the fetus during pregnancy

new born screening

the practice of testing new born for harmful or potentially fatal disorder that is not otherwise apparent at birth.

Nicholas Steno

was studying a large shark that had been caught by fishermen and noticed its teeth resembled stony objects found in some rocks

Charles Lyell

disagreed with Cuvier and his theory of catastrophism

Georges Cuvier

one of the pioneers of paleontology

charles darwin

a naturalist who had a copy of charles lyell’s book on geology with him as he traveled to south america on the HMS beagle

adaptive radiation

darwin’s discovery of an important evolutionary process where a species rapidly diversifies into new forms

respiratory system

consists of a set of organs and tissues involved in the uptake of oxygen from the atmosphere and the release of carbon dioxide generated during aerobic respiration

nose and nasal cavity

serves as the primary entry point for air

mouth and oral cavity

can also serve as an alternate entry point for air

pharynx

connects the nasal cavity and mouth to the trachea

larynx

tough flexible segment of the respiratory tract that connects the pharynx to the trachea

trachea

a wide, hollow tube that connects the larynx to the bronchi of the lungs

bronchi

are the main airways into the lungs

bronchioles

small branching air passages inside the lungs

alveoli

tiny air sacs located at the end of the bronchioles

cough

clears the larynx and lower bronchi

sneeze

clears the pharynx and upper nasal passages

hiccups

spasm of the diagram

yawn

very deep inspiration; ventilates all of the alveoli

mesothelioma

cancel of the pleura of the lungs or thoracic cavity

asthma

an inflammatory disease that can obstruct the airway and cause spasms of the bronchi

bronchitis

an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the bronchi

pneumonia

is an inflammation of the lungs resulting from a bacterial or viral infection

cystic fibrosis

a genetic disorder where mucous cells produce a dense, viscous mucus that cannot be transported by the cilia

tuberculosis

a highly contagious bacterial infection of the lungs

pneumothorax

collapsed lohbe of a lung that occurs due to a puncture wound, broken rib, or gun shot

pulmonary aspiration

is the entry of material into the lower respiratory tract

pleural effusion

a buildup of fluid between the layers of tissue that line the lungs and chest cavity

cardiovascular system

an organ system that conveys blood through vessels to and from all parts of the body

blood

transports dissolved gases, nutrients, hormones, and wastes to and from all tissues of the body

plasma

is a mixture of 92% water, proteins, nutrients, electrolytes, and wastes

albumin

helps to transport lipids