Chapter 40 FRFR

In feedback regulation, a fluctuation in a variable that triggers a response.

STIMULUS

The processes and functions of an organism.

PHYSIOLOGY

In animals, the internal system of communication involving hormones, the ductless glands that secrete hormones, and the molecular receptors on or in target cells that respond to hormones; functions in concert with the nervous system to effect internal regulation and maintain homeostasis. (2 Words)

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

In multicellular organisms, one of many types of secreted chemicals that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids, and act on specific target cells in other parts of the organism, changing the target cells' functioning.

HORMONE

Animal tissue that functions mainly to bind and support other tissues, having a sparse population of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix. (2 Words)

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Metabolic rate of a resting, fasting, and nonstressed ectotherm at a particular temperature. (3 Words)

STANDARD METABOLIC RATE

A long-term physiological state in which metabolism decreases, the heart and respiratory system slow down, and body temperature is maintained at a lower level than normal.

HIBERNATION

A nerve cell; the fundamental unit of the nervous system, having structure and properties that allow it to conduct signals by taking advantage of the electrical charge across its plasma membrane.

NEURON

The maintenance of internal body temperature within a tolerable range.

THERMOREGULATION

A type of striated muscle that is generally responsible for the voluntary movements of the body. (2 Words)

SKELETAL MUSCLE

Sheets of tightly packed cells that line organs and body cavities as well as external surfaces. (2 Words)

EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Physiological adjustment to a change in an environmental factor.

ACCLIMATIZATION

An epithelial tissue.

EPITHELIUM

An animal for which mechanisms of homeostasis moderate internal changes in a particular variable in the face of external fluctuation of that variable.

REGULATOR

Referring to organisms that are warmed by heat generated by their own metabolism. This heat usually maintains a relatively stable body temperature higher than that of the external environment.

ENDOTHERMIC

An animal for which an internal condition conforms to (changes in accordance with) changes in an environmental variable.

CONFORMER

In animals, the fast-acting internal system of communication involving sensory receptors, networks of nerve cells, and connections to muscles and glands that respond to nerve signals; functions in concert with the endocrine system to effect internal regulation and maintain homeostasis. (2 Words)

NERVOUS SYSTEM

The steady-state physiological condition of the body.

HOMEOSTASIS

Referring to organisms for which external sources provide most of the heat for temperature regulation.

ECTOTHERMIC

The total amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time. (2 Words)

METABOLIC RATE

A specialized center of body function composed of several different types of tissues.

ORGAN

In homeostasis, a receptor that detects a stimulus.

SENSOR

A type of cell in loose connective tissue that secretes the protein ingredients of the extracellular fibers.

FIBROBLASTS

The outer covering of a mammal's body, including skin, hair, and nails, claws, or hooves. (2 Words)

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

A physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases.

TORPOR

The metabolic rate of a resting, fasting, and nonstressed endotherm at a comfortable temperature. (3 Words)

BASAL METABOLIC RATE

A group of organs that work together in performing vital body functions. (2 Words)

ORGAN SYSTEM

In cellular communication, the change in a specific cellular activity brought about by a transduced signal from outside the cell; or in feedback regulation, a physiological activity triggered by a change in a variable.

RESPONSE

The exchange of a substance or heat between two fluids flowing in opposite directions. For example, blood in a fish gill flows in the opposite direction of water passing over the gill, maximizing diffusion of oxygen into and carbon dioxide out of the blood. (2 Words)

COUNTERCURRENT EXCHANGE

The fluid filling the spaces between cells in most animals. (2 Words)

INTERSTITIAL FLUID

In homeostasis in animals, a value maintained for a particular variable, such as body temperature or solute concentration. (2 Words)

SET POINT

The ventral part of the vertebrate forebrain; functions in maintaining homeostasis, especially in coordinating the endocrine and nervous systems; secretes hormones of the posterior pituitary and releasing factors that regulate the anterior pituitary.

HYPOTHALAMUS

A form of regulation in which accumulation of an end product of a process slows the process; in physiology, a primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a variable triggers a response that counteracts the initial change. (2 Words)

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

A form of regulation in which an end product of a process speeds up that process; in physiology, a control mechanism in which a change in a variable triggers a response that reinforces or amplifies the change. (2 Words)

POSITIVE FEEDBACK

The overall flow and transformation of energy in an organism; or the study of how energy flows through organisms.

BIOENERGETICS

A type of muscle lacking the striations of skeletal and cardiac muscle because of the uniform distribution of myosin filaments in the cells; responsible for involuntary body activities. (2 Words)

SMOOTH MUSCLE

Tissue consisting of long muscle cells that can contract, either on its own or when stimulated by nerve impulses. (2 Words)

MUSCLE TISSUE

A physiological cycle of about 24 hours that persists even in the absence of external cues. (2 Words)

CIRCADIAN RHYTHM

An integrated group of cells with a common structure, function, or both.

TISSUE

A connective tissue with a fluid matrix called plasma in which red blood cells, white blood cells, and cell fragments called platelets are suspended.

BLOOD

A type of striated muscle that forms the contractile wall of the heart. Its cells are joined by intercalated disks that relay the electrical signals underlying each heartbeat. (2 Words)

CARDIAC MUSCLE

A phagocytic cell present in many tissues that functions in innate immunity by destroying microbes and in acquired immunity as an antigen-presenting cell.

MACROPHAGE

A connective tissue consisting of living cells held in a rigid matrix of collagen fibers embedded in calcium salts.

BONE

The structure of an organism.

ANATOMY

Cells of the nervous system that support, regulate, and augment the functions of neurons.

GLIA

Physical laws govern

strength, diffusion, movement, and heat exchange

What do properties of water limit

possible shapes for fast swimming animals

What happens as animals increase in size

Thicker skeletons needed for support

What materials are exchanged across the cell membranes of animal cells

nutrients, waste products, and gases

Rate of exchange is proportional to

Cells surface area (2D)

amount of exchange material is proportional to

Cell’s volume (3D)

Multicellular organisms with a saclike body plan have body walls that are only

two cells thick

are four main types of animal tissues

Epithelial

Connective

Muscle

Nervous

recall facts about Epithelial tissue

• covers the outside of the body and lines the organs and cavities within the body

• It contains cells that are closely joined

• shape of epithelial cells may be cuboidal (like dice), columnar (like cricks on end), or squamous (like floor tiles)

• The arrangement of epithelial cells may be simple (single cell layer), stratified (multiple tiers of cells), or pseudostratified (a single layer of cells of varying length)

where connective tissues are scattered

extracellular matrix - consists of fibers in a liquid, jellylike, or solid foundation

what are connective tissue fibers made of

protein

list the types of connective issues and what each one does

Collagenous fibers provide strength and flexibility

Reticular fibers join connective tissue to adjacent tissues

Elastic fibers stretch & snap back to their original length

How many types of cells are found in connective tissues & what are they & what do they do

Fibroblasts: secrete the protein of extracellular fibers

Macrophages: involved in the immune system

In vertebrates how many types of connective tissues are there and what do they do

1.Loose tissue binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place

2.Fibrous tissue is found in tendons (attach muscles to bones) and ligaments (connect bones at joints)

3.Bone is mineralized and forms the skeleton

4.Adipose tissue stores fat for insulation and fuel

5.Blood is composed of blood cells and cell fragments in blood plasma

6.Cartilage is a strong and flexible support material

recall facts about muscle tissues

• responsible for nearly all types of body movement

• consist of filaments of the proteins actin and myosin, which together enable muscles to contract

how many types of muscle tissues are there and what are they and what do they do

Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is responsible for voluntary movement

Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary body activities

Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction of the heart

what do nervous tissues contain and what do they do

Neurons, or nerve cells, which transmit nerve impulses

Glial cells, or glia, which support cells

what do coordination and control in the body depend on

endocrine and nervous system

A hormone may affect _ or more regions in the body

1

Hormones are relatively _____ but can have long-lasting effects over _____ of the body

slow acting, large areas

The nervous system transmits information between ____ locations

specific

Faced with environmental fluctuations, animals manage their internal environment by either _____ or _____

regulating, conforming

For homeostasis in humans, whats maintained at a constant level

body temperature, blood pH, and glucose concentration

In animals and plants, a circadian rhythm governs physiological changes that occur roughly every ___hours

24

Acclimatization is a _____ change during an animals lifetime

temporary

Example of endothermic animals

walruses, humans

Examples of ectothermic animals

fish, amphibians, and non-avian reptile

is endothermy or exotherm more energetically expansive

Endothermy

_____ tolerate greater variation in internal temperatures

ectotherms

The body temperature of a _____ varies with its environment

poikilotherm

The body temperature of a _____ is relatively constant

homeotherm

Not all ____ are ____

What are the four physical processes organisms exchange heat by

Radiation

Evaporation

Convection

Conduction

what are the five adaptation that help animals thermoregulate

Insulation

Circulatory adaptations

Cooling by evaporative heat loss

Behavioral responses

Adjusting metabolic heat production

in what types of animals is insulation a major adaptation in

mammals & birds

in insulation, what reduces heat flow between the animals and its environment

skin, feathers, fur, blubber

what types of animals are insulation very important in

marine mammals like whales and walruses

what process happens in insulation a lot

countercurrent exchange

what are circulatory adaptations

Regulation of blood flow near the body surface significantly affects thermoregulation

what can many endotherms & some ecotherms do and what does this relate to

alter the amount of blood flow between the body core and skin, circulatory adaptation

blood flow in the skin increases, facilitating heat loss

vasodilation

blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering heat loss

vasoconstriction

Many insects have countercurrent heat exchangers that help maintain a high temperature in the _____

thorax

sharks, fishes, and insects also use

countercurrent heat exchanges

lose heat through evaporation of water from their skin

evaporative heat loss

what happens in evaporative heat loss

Sweating or bathing moistens the skin, helping to cool an animal down

_____ increases the cooling effect in bird and many mammals

panting

Ectotherms, and sometimes endotherms, use _______ to control body temperature

behavioral responses

the adjustment of metabolic heat production to maintain body temperature

thermogenesis

what increases thermogenesis

muscle activity

when hormones cause mitochondria to increase metabolic activity

Non-shivering thermogenesis

what is the name of the tissue some mammals have that is specialized for rapid heat production

brown fat

where is brown fat found

mammal infants and hibernating mammals

When temperatures are subzero, some ectotherms produce ____ compounds to prevent ice formation in their cells

antifreeze

Lipid composition of cell membranes may

change with temperature