Psychology Chapters 8-13

Clinical Psychology

A branch of psychology focused on diagnosing, understanding, and treating mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders through assessment and therapy.

Psychotherapy

A treatment method in which trained professionals use psychological techniques (talk therapy) to help individuals understand and change their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Providers of Psychotherapy

Professionals who can provide therapy, including psychologists, psychiatrists, licensed counselors, social workers, and marriage and family therapists.

Psychologist vs. Psychiatrist

Psychologists typically provide therapy and hold a PhD or PsyD but usually cannot prescribe medication; psychiatrists are medical doctors (MDs) who can prescribe medication and also provide therapy.

Sociocultural Approach to Therapy

A perspective that considers how cultural, social, and environmental factors influence mental health and tailors treatment to fit an individual’s background and experiences.

Evidence-Based Practice

The use of therapy methods that have been scientifically tested and proven to be effective through research.

Therapeutic Alliance

The trusting and collaborative relationship between a therapist and client that is essential for successful treatment outcomes.

Psychodynamic Therapies

Therapies that focus on unconscious processes, early childhood experiences, and unresolved conflicts to understand and treat psychological issues.

Psychoanalysis

A form of psychodynamic therapy that deeply explores the unconscious mind using techniques like free association and dream analysis.

Humanistic Therapies

Therapies that emphasize personal growth, self-awareness, and achieving one’s full potential by focusing on the present and the individual’s perspective.

Client-Centered Therapy

A humanistic therapy developed by Carl Rogers that provides unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuine support to help clients find their own solutions.

Behavior Therapies

Therapies that focus on changing maladaptive behaviors through learning principles such as conditioning and reinforcement.

Systematic Desensitization

A behavioral technique that reduces fear and anxiety by gradually exposing a person to a feared object or situation while teaching relaxation techniques.

Cognitive Therapies

Therapies that focus on identifying and changing negative or distorted thinking patterns that influence behavior and emotions.

Cognitive Restructuring

A cognitive therapy technique that involves identifying irrational or negative thoughts and replacing them with more realistic and positive ones.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

A therapy that combines cognitive and behavioral techniques to change both negative thought patterns and harmful behaviors.

Integrative Therapy

An approach that combines elements from multiple therapeutic approaches to best meet the individual needs of the client.

Biological Therapies

Treatments that use medication or medical procedures to alter brain chemistry and reduce symptoms of psychological disorders.

Antianxiety Drugs

Medications that reduce anxiety by calming the nervous system and slowing brain activity.

Antidepressant Drugs

Medications that improve mood by increasing levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin in the brain.

Antipsychotic Drugs

Medications used to treat severe mental disorders by reducing symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions.

Cross-Cultural Competence

The ability of a therapist to understand, respect, and effectively work with clients from diverse cultural backgrounds.

Abnormal Behavior

Behavior that is considered unusual, harmful, or distressing based on psychological criteria such as deviance, maladaptiveness, and personal distress.

Deviant Behavior

Actions or thoughts that differ significantly from societal norms. Example: Talking loudly to oneself in public when it is not socially accepted.

Maladaptive Behavior

Behavior that interferes with a person’s ability to function effectively in daily life. Example: Avoiding all social interaction to the point of being unable to work or attend school.

Personally Distressful Behavior

Behavior that causes significant emotional suffering or distress to the individual. Example: Persistent feelings of sadness and hopelessness in depression.

Cultural & Contextual Influence on Abnormal Behavior

The idea that what is considered 'abnormal' depends on cultural norms, values, and situational context, meaning behavior acceptable in one culture may be abnormal in another.

Biological Approach (Medical Model)

Suggests psychological disorders are caused by biological factors such as genetics, brain structure, and neurotransmitter imbalances.

Psychological Approach

Attributes disorders to mental, emotional, and behavioral factors, including trauma, stress, learned behaviors, and negative thinking patterns.

Sociocultural Approach

Emphasizes the role of social environment, culture, family, and societal influences in the development and treatment of disorders.

Biopsychosocial Approach

Explains disorders as the result of a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors interacting together.

DSM-5

A manual published by the American Psychiatric Association used by clinicians to diagnose and classify mental disorders based on standardized criteria.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

A developmental disorder characterized by difficulties in social communication, restricted interests, and repetitive behaviors.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

A disorder marked by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that interferes with daily functioning.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

Persistent and excessive worry about multiple aspects of life, often without a clear cause.

Panic Disorder

A disorder involving recurrent, unexpected panic attacks with intense fear and physical symptoms.

Social Anxiety Disorder

Extreme fear of being judged or embarrassed in social situations, leading to avoidance.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

A disorder involving obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors) performed to reduce anxiety.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

A disorder that develops after exposure to a traumatic event, involving flashbacks, nightmares, and severe anxiety.

Major Depressive Disorder

A mood disorder characterized by persistent sadness, loss of interest, and lack of motivation.

Bipolar Disorder

A mood disorder involving extreme mood swings between depressive lows and manic highs.

Anorexia Nervosa

An eating disorder involving extreme restriction of food intake and intense fear of gaining weight.

Bulimia Nervosa

An eating disorder involving cycles of binge eating followed by purging behaviors (like vomiting or excessive exercise).

Binge Eating Disorder

An eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of excessive eating without purging behaviors.

Schizophrenia

A severe disorder involving distorted thinking, hallucinations, delusions, and impaired functioning.

Suicide

The act of intentionally ending one’s own life, often associated with factors like depression, trauma, substance abuse, and feelings of hopelessness.

Factors Contributing to Suicide

Risk factors include mental illness, stressful life events, lack of support, substance abuse, and feelings of isolation or hopelessness.

Stigma (Psychological Disorders)

Negative attitudes, beliefs, and stereotypes about people with mental health conditions.

Examples of Stigma

Believing people with mental illness are dangerous, avoiding them socially, or using harmful labels.

Consequences of Stigma

Can lead to social isolation, discrimination, reduced self-esteem, and reluctance to seek treatment.

Reducing Stigma

Methods include education, open conversations, media representation, and promoting empathy and understanding.

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how individuals think about, influence, and relate to others in social situations.

Bystander Effect

The tendency for people to be less likely to help someone in need when others are present. Why it happens: Due to diffusion of responsibility (people assume someone else will help).

Stereotypes

Generalized beliefs about a group of people that may oversimplify or ignore individual differences.

Stereotype Threat

The fear of confirming a negative stereotype about one’s group, which can negatively affect performance. How it contributes to prejudice: It reinforces stereotypes when individuals underperform due to pressure. Solution: Reduce pressure, emphasize individual ability, and create supportive environments.

Attribution Theory

A theory explaining how people interpret and explain the causes of behavior.

Attribution Dimensions

Three ways we explain behavior: Internal vs. External: Personal traits vs. situational factors. Stable vs. Unstable: Permanent vs. temporary causes. Controllable vs. Uncontrollable: Within a person’s control or not.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate internal causes of others’ behavior while underestimating situational factors. Example: Assuming someone is rude because of their personality instead of considering they might be having a bad day.

Attitudes

Evaluations (positive or negative) about people, objects, or ideas that influence behavior.

Attitude Influence on Behavior

Attitudes can shape actions, especially when they are strong and specific. Example: Someone who values health is more likely to exercise regularly.

Cognitive Dissonance

Psychological discomfort caused by holding conflicting beliefs or behaviors.

Reducing Cognitive Dissonance

Ways to reduce discomfort include changing beliefs, justifying behavior, or altering actions.

Altruism

Helping others without expecting anything in return.

Egoism

Helping others to gain personal benefit, such as praise or avoiding guilt.

Empathy

The ability to understand and share another person’s feelings, often leading to helping behavior.

Prosocial Behavior

Actions intended to benefit others, such as helping, sharing, or comforting.

Aggression

Behavior intended to harm another person, either physically or emotionally.

Causes of Aggression

Biological: Genetics, hormones (e.g., testosterone). Psychological: Frustration, anger. Sociocultural: Media violence, social norms.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match those of a group.

Factors Influencing Conformity

Group size: Larger groups increase conformity. Unanimity: Agreement among group members increases pressure to conform.

Obedience

Following direct orders from an authority figure.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness in groups, leading to impulsive or harmful behavior.

Groupthink

The tendency for groups to prioritize agreement over critical thinking, leading to poor decisions.

Preventing Groupthink

Encourage diverse opinions, critical thinking, and open discussion.

Prejudice

A negative attitude or feeling toward a group of people.

Factors Contributing to Prejudice

Includes social learning, stereotypes, fear of differences, and competition for resources.

Discrimination

Unfair treatment or actions toward individuals based on their group membership.

Difference Between Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Discrimination

Stereotypes: Beliefs (cognitive). Prejudice: Feelings (affective). Discrimination: Actions (behavioral).

Personality

The unique and relatively stable patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that characterize an individual.

Psychodynamic Perspective

A view of personality that emphasizes unconscious processes, early childhood experiences, and internal conflicts as key influences on behavior.

Id

The primitive, unconscious part of personality that seeks immediate pleasure and follows the pleasure principle. Example: Wanting to eat junk food immediately without considering consequences.

Ego

The rational part of personality that mediates between the id and reality, operating on the reality principle. Example: Deciding to wait until after dinner to eat dessert.

Superego

The moral component of personality that represents internalized societal rules and ideals. Example: Feeling guilty for lying or breaking rules.

Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies used by the ego to reduce anxiety by distorting reality.

Denial

Refusing to accept reality or facts. Example: Ignoring a serious medical diagnosis and acting like nothing is wrong.

Displacement

Redirecting emotions from a threatening target to a safer one. Example: Getting angry at a teacher, then taking it out on a sibling.

Repression

Unconsciously pushing distressing thoughts out of awareness. Example: Forgetting a traumatic childhood event.

Humanistic Perspective

Emphasizes personal growth, self-awareness, and free will in shaping personality.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Accepting and valuing a person without judgment or conditions, regardless of their behavior.

Self-Concept

The beliefs and perceptions individuals have about themselves.

Conditions of Self-Worth

Expectations placed on individuals that determine when they feel valued or accepted. Example: Feeling worthy only when achieving high grades.

Trait Theories

Theories that describe personality based on consistent patterns of traits (characteristics).

Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN)

A widely accepted model describing five core personality traits.

Openness

Willingness to try new things and be creative. Example: Enjoying art, travel, and new experiences.

Conscientiousness

Being organized, responsible, and dependable. Example: Completing assignments on time and planning ahead.

Extraversion

Being outgoing, energetic, and social. Example: Enjoying large social gatherings.

Agreeableness

Being cooperative, kind, and trusting. Example: Helping others and avoiding conflict.

Neuroticism

Tendency to experience negative emotions like anxiety and moodiness. Example: Frequently feeling stressed or worried.

Social-Cognitive Perspective

Emphasizes how interactions between thoughts, behaviors, and environment shape personality.

Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Suggests that personality develops through observation, imitation, and interaction with others.