Development and Learning

Nature/Nurture

The debate regarding whether genetics (nature) or the environment (nurture) plays a greater role in human development.

Continuous/Discontinuous Development

Theories regarding whether development is a gradual process (continuous) or occurs in distinct stages (discontinuous).

Stability/Change

The question of whether personality traits are stable throughout life or can change as individuals age.

Cross-Sectional Study

Research method that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

Advantages of Cross-Sectional Study

Inexpensive and quick to conduct.

Disadvantages of Cross-Sectional Study

Potential differences due to generational gaps.

Longitudinal Study

Research method that studies the same individuals over an extended period.

Advantages of Longitudinal Study

Eliminates cohort differences and provides detailed data.

Disadvantages of Longitudinal Study

Expensive, time-consuming, and may have high dropout rates.

Teratogens

External agents that can cause abnormal prenatal development, such as alcohol or drugs.

Maturation

The natural course of development that occurs regardless of external influences.

Gross Movement

Development of large muscle groups, strength, and coordination.

Fine Movement

Development of small muscles, precision, and control.

Reflexes

Innate responses present at birth that diminish over time.

Critical Period

A limited time frame in which certain developmental milestones must occur.

Primary Sex Characteristics

Body structures directly involved in reproduction, such as ovaries and testicles.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Non-reproductive traits that develop during puberty, such as body hair and breast development.

Crystallized Intelligence

Knowledge accumulated over time, which tends to increase with age.

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to learn new information and solve problems, which typically declines with age.

Cooing Stage

Early stage of language development in infants, characterized by vowel sounds.

Babbling Stage

Stage wherein infants begin to produce consonant-vowel combinations.

Egocentricity

Inability of children in the pre-operational stage to see things from another's perspective.

Secure Attachment

A strong emotional bond with a caregiver characterized by distress on separation and joy on reunion.

Authoritative Parenting

Parenting style characterized by a balance of rules and support, leading to competent children.

Imaginary Audience

The belief among adolescents that they are constantly being observed by others.

Zone of Proximal Development

The gap between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance.

Trust vs Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's psychosocial development, focusing on whether care needs are met.

Identity vs Role Confusion

The stage in adolescence where individuals explore their identity and develop a sense of self.

Learning Helplessness

A psychological state where an individual feels powerless and gives up after repeated failures.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus after conditioning.

Modeling Behaviors

Learning through observing and imitating the actions of others.

Operant Conditioning

A learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.

Overregularization

Grammar error in children where they apply regular grammatical rules to irregular verbs.

Imprinting

Process where certain animals form attachments during a critical early period.

Visual Cliff

A test used to measure depth perception in infants by creating the illusion of a cliff.