Chapter 10: Inequality by Race and Ethnicity

Race refers to a _____ constructed category of people who share _____ traits that members of a _____ consider important.

Socially; biologically; society

Race has no _____ reality, but rather is a _____ construction to categorize _____ differences.

Biological; social; biological

The most salient phenotype is _____, which is not _____.

Skin color; static

People look different due to _____, _____, and _____/_____.

Genetic mutations; evolutionary adaptations; colonization/conquest

People look different due to certain evolutionary adaptations, as having darker skin provides protection from the _____ in certain areas, while having fairer skin conserves _____ and absorbs more _____ in other areas.

Sun; heat; Vitamin D

People look different due to colonization and conquest, which allowed for _____.

Gene transfer

Because race is a _____ construction, the process of _____ races typically benefits those that have more _____ and _____ than others.

Social; defining; power; privilege

Ethnicity refers to shared _____ or _____, reflected in _____, _____, _____, etc.

Cultural heritage; national origin; food; language; arts

Race and ethnicity are often confused because we get both _____-transmitted traits and _____ from our parents.

Biologically; culture

As long as people believe that race and ethnicity is a way to categorize people, and they act on the basis on that categorization, _____ will continue to examine race and ethnicity.

Sociologists

Ethnicity groupings serve to obscure differences _____ ethnic groups and to overlook the _____ ancestry of many people in the United States.

Within; mixed

A minority refers to a category of people, distinguished by _____ or _____ traits, who are _____.

Physical; cultural; socially disadvantaged

Being a minority is not about existing in _____, but _____ and _____.

Smaller numbers; distinguishability; social disadvantage

Members of a minority group experience unequal treatment compared to members of a _____ group.

Dominant

Membership in a minority group is not _____, making it an _____ status.

Voluntary; ascribed

Minority group members tend to have a strong sense of _____.

Group solidarity

Members of a minority group generally _____ others from the same group.

Marry

A stereotype refers to an _____ about all members of a group that do not recognize _____ within a group.

Unreliable generalization; individual differences

Stereotypes are often used to _____ groups, even if they are considered _____.

Disadvantage; positive

_____ groups create stereotypes through the process of _____.

Dominant; racial formation

According to the _____ perspective, people respond to not only the _____ features of a person, but the _____ meanings they carry, meaning that _____ can have _____.

Interactionist; objective; social; false images; real consequences

Racism refers to the ideology/belief that _____.

One racial category is innately superior or inferior to another

In terms of racism, _____, particularly in terms of _____ and _____, are transferred _____.

Stratification; stability; wealth; intergenerationally

Color-blind racism refers to the use of the principle of _____ to define the _____.

Race neutrality; racially-unequal status quo

Proponents of color-blind racism often oppose _____, _____, and _____, but do not oppose practices that _____, such as _____ criteria that give preferences to the relatives of _____.

Affirmative action; public welfare assistance; government-funded health insurance; privilege white people; college admissions; alumni

The idea that society should be color-blind perpetuates _____, as people fail to recognize that they could be treating people differently.

Racial inequality

_____-disadvantaged groups such as Black and Hispanic Americans have become so closely associated with _____, _____, and _____ that those crimes are now viewed as _____ issues, even if they are not labeled as such, creating a tendency to _____.

Economically; homelessness; welfare; crime; racial; blame the victims

Racial formation refers to a _____ process in which racial categories are _____, _____, _____, and _____. Those who have _____ define groups of people according to a _____ social structure.

Sociohistorical; created; inhabited; transformed; destroyed; power; racist

Racial formation led to the creation of a _____ system for _____ Americans as a result of racial ideology that allowed Congress to say that it was no longer going to recognize the sovereignty of _____ nations, leading to a loss of _____, which is a central feature of _____ and _____.

Reservation; Native; native; land; stability; development

Racial formation led to the _____ rule, the categorization of people on the basis of _____. At the time these laws were created, race could not accurately be determined this way, so governments looked at _____ to categorize someone as _____ vs. _____.

One-drop; blood; bloodlines; black; white

Under the _____ perspective, Manning _____ proposed three _____.

Functionalist; Nash; functions of racially prejudiced beliefs

Nash proposed that racially prejudiced beliefs served as a _____, i.e. race could serve as an explanation for why it is acceptable to treat certain people poorly.

Moral justification for an unequal society

Nash proposed that racially prejudiced beliefs discourage _____ groups from _____, leading to an _____.

Subordinate; questioning their status; internalization of racist ideas

Nash proposed that racially prejudiced beliefs encourage _____, i.e. if society were to change drastically, non-white people would probably suffer the most. This aligns with the idea that _____.

Support for the status quo; disadvantaged groups absorb the costs of social change

Under the _____ perspective, Arnold _____ proposed four _____.

Functionalist; Rose; dysfunctions of racism

Rose’s dysfunctions of racism include the failure to _____ (i.e. the failure to _____), the _____ burden put on the _____ group to alleviate _____ problems like _____ and _____, how _____ it is to _____, and the undercutting of _____.

Utilize (human) resources; develop people with potential; financial; dominant; social problems; poverty; crime; time-consuming; defend barriers to the full participation of all members in society; goodwill

Exploitation theory is a theory that is aligned with the _____ perspective and posits that the unequal treatment of subordinate groups is an integral part of _____. Racism keeps minorities in _____, thereby supplying the _____, _____ class with a pool of _____. By forcing racial minorities to accept _____, capitalists can _____.

Conflict; capitalism; low-paying jobs; capitalist; ruling; cheap labor; low wages; restrict the wages of all members of the proletariat

One criticism of exploitation theory is that it it too _____, as not all groups are _____, and many groups have been prejudiced for other than _____ reasons.

Limited to explain prejudice in all forms; exploited to the same extent; economic

Racial profiling refers to any arbitrary action initiated by an _____ based on _____, _____, or _____, rather than on a person’s _____.

Authority; race; ethnicity; national origin; behavior

Related to the concept of racial profiling, _____ refers to the idea that African Americans can be highly educated and hold respectable jobs but still be treated with suspicion.

Double consciousness

The _____ movement and use of _____ and _____ have brought racial profiling and policing tactics into national discussion.

Black Lives Matter; bystander cameras; policy body cameras

Racial profiling persists despite overwhelming evidence that it is not effective in identifying potential troublemakers, contributing to an increased likelihood of _____ and _____ for Black and Hispanic Americans.

Being searched; using force

The contact hypothesis is a theory that is aligned with the _____ perspective and posits that racial _____ (thoughts) and _____ (actions) can be reduced through _____. For this to work, people have to have _____.

Interactionist; prejudice; discrimination; cooperative contact between races; equal status

Affirmative action refers to positive efforts to recruit members of _____ groups or _____ for _____, _____, and _____. Affirmative action was intended to encourage employers and schools to _____.

Minority; women; jobs; promotions; educational opportunities; consider candidates outside of their preferred scope

Proposition 209 proposed that _____ cannot be used to determine access to _____ or _____.

Race; public education; public jobs

In both the case of Gratz v. Bollinger and Grutter v. Bollinger, the plantiffs argued that _____, with differing verdicts in each case.

White students were being discrminated against

Gratz v. Bollinger and Grutter v. Bollinger were both evaluated using the principle of _____, which involves _____, being _____, and the _____.

Strict scrutiny; compelling government interest; narrow tailored; least restrictive means possible

Compelling government interest influenced the outcome of Grutter v. Bollinger because on a college campus, students are relatively _____, providing the unique opportunity for _____.

Status equals; students from different backgrounds to interact

In Gratz v. Bollinger, the court decided that _____, while in Grutter v. Bollinger, the applicants were evaluated _____, without explicitly _____.

Getting points for being an ethnic or racial minority is unfair; holistically; receiving points for being from a racial or ethnic minority

White privilege refers to _____.

Invisible advantage granted to people simply because they are white

Peggy _____ recognized the small advantages associated with being white, such as _____ and _____.

McIntosh; buying dolls for your children that look like them; bandages that match your skin tone

Robert _____ posited that the ultimate form of white privilege is _____.

Acknowledging that it exists but not needing to do anything about it

One of the most profound forms of white privilege is access to _____ and _____ transfer.

Loans; wealth

Redlining refers to _____.

Discrimination against people trying to buy homes in minority and racially changing neighborhoods

Prejudice and discrimination are often not a neat mental package, i.e. _____.

Most people do not recognize that they are being prejudicial or discriminatory

Prejudice refers to a _____, i.e. _____.

Rigid and irrational generalization about an entire category of people; thoughts

The three levels of prejudice are the _____, _____, and _____ level.

Cognitive; emotional; action-oriented

The cognitive level of prejudice refers to _____ and _____.

Beliefs; perceptions

The emotional level of prejudice refers to the _____ a group arouses in an individual.

Feelings

The action-oriented level of prejudice refers to a predisposition to engage in _____.

Discriminatory behavior

Sometimes prejudice results from ethnocentrism, the tendency to assume that _____.

One’s own culture and way of life are superior to all others

Discrimination refers to the _____, i.e. _____.

Denial of opportunities and equal rights to people on an arbitrary bias; actions

Discrimination persists even for the most _____ and _____ minority group members. The glass ceiling refers to the _____.

Educated; qualified; invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified person in a work environment because of their gender, race, or ethnicity

Institutional discrimination/_____ refers to discrimination that results from the _____. These include states that prevent _____ and laws that _____.

Systemic racism; normal operations of a society; citizens with past felonies from voting; require IDs to vote

The psychological explanation for prejudice and discrimination posits that they are the result of people with _____ personalities. For people who come from homes with _____, have a lot of displaced _____, and feel _____, prejudice and discrimination fulfills a psychic _____.

Authoritarian; harsh discipline; aggression; powerless; need

The sociological explanation for prejudice and discrimination posits that people will act in a way to _____ for themselves and _____.

Maximize rewards; minimize costs

The enculturation explanation for prejudice and discrimination posits that people are _____ to believe and behave and can be _____ to participate or resist.

Socialized; taught

According to _____’s chart, a person with no prejudice and no discrimination would be considered a _____. These people tend to live in _____ areas where they do not have many _____ to discriminate.

Merton; all weather liberal; isolated; opportunities

According to _____’s chart, a person with no prejudice but with discrimination would be considered a _____. They act on the basis of _____, often in a way that is _____, which may produce _____/_____.

Merton; fair weather liberal; perceived benefits; inconsistent with their beliefs; guilt/shame

According to _____’s chart, a person with prejudice but no discrimination would be considered a _____. These people are unwilling to _____.

Merton; timid bigot; accept the social consequences of discriminatory behavior

According to _____’s chart, a person with prejudice and discrimination would be considered an _____. These people are consistent in their _____ and _____.

Merton; active bigot; thoughts; actions

Institutional discrimination refers to _____, e.g. the _____.

Bias inherent in the operation of society’s institutions; Selective Service

Prejudice and discrimination is reproduced through the _____, _____, _____, and _____.

Family; education; media; peer groups

Genocide refers to the _____. This includes _____/_____, as well as the _____/_____. The _____ of a people is another means of acting on racial or ethnic prejudice, e.g. Myanmar and the Rohingya, as is _____, or the drawing of formal boundaries between groups, e.g. in India.

Deliberate and systematic killing of an entire people or nation; Nazi Germany/European Jews; United States/Native Americans; expulsion; secession

Segregation refers to the _____ separation of two groups of people in terms of _____, _____, _____. etc. _____ refers to the relationship between the Republic of South Africa and Black South Africans until _____ came about. Segregation can be used to describe the current racial makeup of _____.

Physical; residence; workplaces; social events; apartheid; Nelson Mandela; U.S. neighborhoods

Amalgamation refers to when the _____, i.e. A + B + C = _____. This is consistent with the idea of a _____.

Majority and minority group combine to form a new group; D; melting pot

Assimilation refers to when a _____, i.e. A + B + C = _____. _____ group members conform to the standards of the _____ group.

Person forsakes their cultural traditions to become part of a different culture; A; minority; dominant

Pluralism refers to _____, i.e. A + B + C = _____. This is more of an _____ than a _____ in the U.S. Pluralism is exemplified by _____, where there is no _____ nor _____.

Mutual respect among various groups in a society for one another’s culture; A + B + C; ideal; reality; Switzerland; national language; dominant religion

The United States is both _____ and _____, with the largest racial minorities being _____, _____, and _____, and the largest ethnic groups being _____, _____, and _____.

Multiracial; multiethnic; African Americans; Native Americans; Asian Pacific Americans; Hispanic Americans; Jews; various White ethnic groups

Contemporary _____ and individual _____ against African Americans are rooted in the history of _____ in the United States.

Institutional discrimination; prejudice; slavery

Today, African Americans are calling for _____ to compensate for the injustices of _____, particularly in the form of _____ and _____.

Reparation; forced servitude; official apologies; direct payments

The end of the _____ did not bring genuine freedom and equality for Black Southerners, as they were then met with _____ and _____.

Civil War; Jim Crow segregation; Ku Klux Klan lynching

During the _____ movement, Dr. _____ advocated for the use of _____ to oppose segregation, while _____ preferred the idea of _____, which rejected the goal of _____ into white society.

Civil rights; Martin Luther King Jr.; non-violent civil disobedience; Malcom X; Black power; assimilation

By the time the _____ (BIA) was organized as part of the War Department, relations between _____ and whites had already included more than two centuries of hostile actions, leading to the _____. Today, inequality persists in the form of extremely high rates of _____ in this population.

Bureau of Indian Affairs; Native Americans; virtual elimination of native peoples; suicide attempts

Asian Pacific Americans are stereotyped as a _____, a group that, despite past prejudice and discrimination, succeeds economically, socially, and educationally without resorting to _____.

Model minority; political or violent confrontations with white people

Unlike enslaved Africans and Native Americans, the Chinese were initially encouraged to immigrate to the United States, but growing _____ led to the formation of the _____.

Competition of jobs; Chinese Exclusion Act

Filipinos began immigrating to the United States as American nationals when the U.S. government gained possession of the Philippines at the end of the _____. Many immigrants work in _____, draining _____ resources in the Philippines.

Spanish-American war; healthcare; medical

_____ are the largest minority in the United States.

Hispanic Americans

Among Hispanic Americans, some groups retain _____, which can cause serious problems in _____, and _____ difficulties contribute to low _____ status.

Spanish as their first language; assimilation; educational; economic

White ethnic Americans tend to engage in _____, emphasis on concerns such as ethnic good or political issues rather than on deeper ties to one’s heritage.

Symbolic ethnicity

In the future, an ever-growing proportion of the United States will be _____ or _____. To a large degree, _____ is a key factor in opposition to immigation.

Asian; Hispanic; fear and resentment of growing diversity

Immigration performs many valuable functions. In the receiving society, _____, while in the sending nation, _____.

Labor shortages are alleviated; economies that cannot support large numbers of people are relieved

According to “The House We Live In,” what we perceive as _____ is one of the first things that we notice about each other, and attached to these characteristics is a mosaic of values, _____, and _____. Even those of us who claim we do not believe _____ can easily recite them.

Race; assumptions; historical meanings; stereotypes

According to “The House We Live In,” the average person on the street thinks that race consists of differences in _____, yet race is not a level of _____ division that we find in anatomically modern humans.

Physical appearances; biological

According to “The House We Live In,” being classified as Asian, Black, or Latino has never carried the same advantages as being _____. Markers of race mean nothing unless they are given _____ meaning, contributing to _____ and _____ that affect _____ and _____.

White; social; laws; practices; life chances; opportunities

According to “The House We Live In,” immigrants are coming to a country that has historically always been highly _____. Race has origins in _____ and the conquest of _____.

Racialized; slavery; Native Americans

According to “The House We Live In,” immigrants often worked the _____, _____, and most _____ jobs along the so-called _____ races already here, including Black, Mexican, and Chinese people. Cities with enormous _____ developed as the ugly side of industrialization, leading to the solidifying of _____. According to _____, the United States would progressively become darker, smaller, and more prone to crime and insanity.

Hardest; poorest-paying; dangerous; inferior; slums; class differences; Davenport

According to “The House We Live In,” scientific race theory refers to the _____, with _____ people at the top. Differences were thought to be rooted in _____/_____, but Italian and Jewish immigrants were not seen as _____.

Placement of people into an order of races; white; heredity/biology; fully white

According to “The House We Live In,” the more newcomers were forced into poor environments, the more these conditions were explained as natural consequences of their _____, _____ character.

Innate; racial

According to “The House We Live In,” the U.S. _____ could never include people of color. _____ was key to citizenship, as only _____, _____ immigrants could become naturalized citizens. Although eventually extended to people of _____ descent, only _____ could gain the full rewards of American citizenship.

Melting pot; whiteness; free; white; African; white people