🧬 BIO101 FINAL

Why is cellular respiration important?

Produces ATP (energy) from glucose

What is oxidation?

Loss of electrons

What is reduction?

Gain of electrons

What does an oxidizing agent do?

Gains electrons and causes another substance to be oxidized

What does a reducing agent do?

Loses electrons and causes another substance to be reduced

What is glycolysis?

Breakdown of glucose into pyruvate

Where does glycolysis occur?

Cytoplasm

Products of glycolysis?

2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate

What starts the Krebs cycle?

Acetyl-CoA + oxaloacetate

Products of Krebs cycle?

ATP, NADH, FADH₂, CO₂

What are cytochromes?

Electron carrier proteins

Where are cytochromes found?

Inner mitochondrial membrane

Goal of electron transport chain?

Produce ATP

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

ATP production using proton gradient

ATP from NADH?

~3 ATP

ATP from FADH₂?

~2 ATP

Total ATP from glucose?

~36 ATP

Substrate-level phosphorylation?

Direct ATP formation

Oxidative phosphorylation?

Uses ETC and oxygen

Two types of fermentation?

Alcohol and lactic acid

Examples of fermentation products?

Lactic acid, ethanol, CO₂, NAD⁺

Aerobic respiration uses what?

Oxygen

Final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration?

Oxygen (O₂)

Final electron acceptors in anaerobic respiration?

NO₃⁻, CO₃²⁻, SO₄²⁻

Organelle for photosynthesis?

Chloroplast

Structure of chloroplast?

Thylakoids, grana, stroma

Where do light reactions occur?

Thylakoid membrane

Where does Calvin cycle occur?

Stroma

Role of water in photosynthesis?

Provides electrons, H⁺, and O₂

How is oxygen produced?

Splitting water

What is a photosystem?

Light-absorbing complex

Photosystem I wavelength?

700 nm

Photosystem II wavelength?

680 nm

Is Calvin cycle anabolic or catabolic?

Anabolic

5-carbon molecule in Calvin cycle?

RuBP

What is photorespiration?

Rubisco binds oxygen instead of CO₂

Why is photorespiration bad?

Wastes energy

C3 plant example

Wheat

C4 plant example?

Corn

CAM plant example?

Cactus

How do C4/CAM plants help?

Reduce photorespiration

What does mitosis produce?

2 identical diploid cells

What does meiosis produce?

4 non-identical haploid cells

What happens in interphase?

Growth and DNA replication

Phases of mitosis?

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

What are cell cycle checkpoints?

Control points (G1, G2, M)

What is haploid?

One set of chromosomes

What is diploid?

Two sets of chromosomes

What is crossing over?

Exchange of DNA between homologous chromosomes

When does crossing over occur?

Prophase I

What is synaptonemal complex?

Structure holding homologous chromosomes together

3 sources of genetic variation?

Crossing over, independent assortment, random fertilization

What are alleles?

Different forms of a gene

Dominant allele?

Expressed trait

Recessive allele?

Hidden unless homozygous

Law of segregation?

Alleles separate during gamete formation

Law of independent assortment?

Genes assort independently

What is a test cross?

Cross with homozygous recessive

Purpose of test cross?

Determine unknown genotype

Incomplete dominance?

Blended phenotype

Codominance?

Both traits expressed

Multiple alleles example?

ABO blood group

Sex-linked traits?

Located on X chromosome

Pedigree chart square?

Male

Pedigree chart circle?

Female

DNA structure?

Double helix

DNA backbone?

Sugar-phosphate

Base pairing rules?

A-T, C-G

If A = 20%, T = ?

20%

If A = 20%, C = ?

30%

What is semiconservative replication?

One old strand, one new strand

Function of helicase?

Unwinds DNA

Function of DNA polymerase?

Adds nucleotides

Function of ligase?

Joins fragments

What is a primer?

Starting point for DNA synthesis

DNA is synthesized in what direction?

5’ → 3’

Leading strand?

Continuous

Lagging strand?

Discontinuous

Enzyme in transcription?

RNA polymerase

RNA polymerase binds to what?

Promoter

Exon?

Coding region

Intron?

Noncoding region

RNA modifications?

5’ cap, poly-A tail, splicing

Codon?

3-base sequence

Start codon?

AUG

Stop codons?

UAA, UAG, UGA

Role of mRNA?

Carries genetic code

Role of tRNA?

Brings amino acids

Role of ribosome?

Builds protein

tRNA enters which site?

A site

How does translation end?

Stop codon + release factor

Difference between fermentation and anaerobic respiration?

Fermentation does NOT use ETC and regenerates NAD⁺; anaerobic respiration uses ETC with a non-oxygen final electron acceptor

What is substrate-level phosphorylation?

Enzyme directly transfers a phosphate to ADP to form ATP

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

ATP production using proton gradient and oxygen as final electron acceptor

What additional component is required in the photosynthesis equation?

Light energy (ATP is used in the process)

How do Photosystem II and Photosystem I work together?

PSII splits water and sends electrons; PSI re-energizes electrons to form NADPH

What enzyme fixes CO₂ in the Calvin cycle?

Rubisco

What exactly happens when a stop codon is reached?

A release factor binds to the ribosome and the polypeptide chain is released

What are key characteristics of cancer cells?

No density-dependent inhibition, no anchorage dependence, no need for growth factors, metastasis, angiogenesis, can be immortal