Lectures 6-12 VM328

Integration of information

Processing of sensory input within central structures to generate appropriate responses

Cerebellum

Structure that coordinates balance and fine motor activity on the same side of the body

Cholinergic neuron

Cell that releases acetylcholine as its primary neurotransmitter

Erythrocyte function

Red blood cell that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide bound to hemoglobin throughout the circulatory system

Metabolic alkalosis

Condition characterized by excess bicarbonate or loss of hydrogen ions

Unipolar neuron

Cell with a single process that functions as an axon

Vestibulocochlear nerve

Sensory pathway that conveys auditory information from the cochlea and balance information from the vestibular apparatus

Hypothalamus

Region that integrates autonomic and endocrine functions and controls the pituitary gland

Net filtration pressure

Resultant force calculated from capillary hydrostatic pressure minus plasma oncotic pressure

Accessory nerve

Motor pathway that innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles

Platelet function

Cell fragments that adhere to vascular injury sites

Trochlear nerve

Motor pathway that supplies the superior oblique eye muscle and associated parasympathetic fibers

Dehydration

State in which water loss exceeds intake

Isotonic crystalloid

Solution with solute concentration similar to plasma

Serotonergic neuron

Cell that releases serotonin

Factor X in coagulation

Enzyme that serves as the convergence point of intrinsic and extrinsic pathways

Hypertonic solution

Fluid with a higher solute concentration than the intracellular environment

Schwann cell

Glial cell in the peripheral compartment that forms myelin around a single axon segment

Facial nerve

Mixed pathway that controls facial expression

Neutrophil function

First‑line phagocytic cells that rapidly ingest and destroy invading microorganisms

Astrocyte

Star‑shaped glial cell that contributes to the blood‑brain barrier and ion homeostasis

Motor (efferent) neuron

Cell that transmits commands from the central nervous system to effectors such as muscles

Lymphocyte function

Cells that mediate adaptive immunity through antibody production (B cells) and cell‑mediated responses (T cells)

Neuron

Excitable cell that generates and propagates electrical impulses for communication

Trigeminal nerve

Mixed nerve that provides facial sensation and motor innervation to mastication muscles

Dendrite

Branch‑like processes that receive incoming signals from other cells

Basal nuclei

Clusters of subcortical nuclei that modulate voluntary movement

Homeostatic monitoring

Continuous detection of internal and external changes to maintain internal stability

Neuroglial cell

Non‑excitable supporting cell that sustains

Golgi type I neuron

Neuron with a long axon that projects to distant targets

Vagus nerve

Mixed pathway that supplies visceral organs

Oculomotor nerve

Motor pathway that innervates most extra‑ocular muscles and controls pupil constriction

Multipolar neuron

Cell with one axon and numerous dendrites

Colloid plasma expander

Large‑molecule solution that raises oncotic pressure

Adrenergic neuron

Cell that releases epinephrine or norepinephrine

Thalamus

Principal relay station for sensory information (except olfaction) to the cortex

Sensory (afferent) neuron

Cell that conveys information from peripheral receptors to the central nervous system

Axon

Long

Oligodendrocyte

Glial cell in the central compartment that wraps multiple axon segments with insulating layers

Pineal gland

Endocrine organ that secretes melatonin

Satellite cell

Glial cell surrounding neuronal somata in peripheral ganglia

Golgi type II neuron

Neuron with a short axon that participates in local circuitry

Glutamatergic neuron

Cell that releases glutamate

GABAergic neuron

Cell that releases γ‑aminobutyric acid to provide inhibitory signaling

Bipolar neuron

Cell possessing one dendrite and one axon

Control & coordination

Generation of motor output and modulation of endocrine activity to execute and fine‑tune actions

Node of Ranvier

Short

Respiratory acidosis

Condition in which elevated carbon dioxide levels lower blood pH

Hypotonic therapeutic solution

Fluid that provides free water

Isotonic solution

Fluid with solute concentration equal to that of the intracellular environment

Bohr effect

Phenomenon where increased carbon dioxide or decreased pH reduces hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen

Dopaminergic neuron

Cell that releases dopamine

Optic nerve

Sensory pathway that carries visual signals from the retina to the brain

Axon terminal

Distal endings that release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft

Vitamin K‑dependent clotting factors

Proteins II

Bicarbonate buffer system

Chemical equilibrium involving carbon dioxide

Olfactory nerve

Sensory pathway that transmits smell information from nasal epithelium to the brain

Ependymal cell

Ciliated epithelial cell lining the ventricles and central canal

Pseudounipolar neuron

Cell whose single process splits into peripheral and central branches for somatic sensation

Soma

Cell body containing the nucleus and organelles that serves as the metabolic hub

Brainstem

Central hub that connects the brain to the spinal cord and gives rise to most cranial nerves

Oncotic pressure

Colloid osmotic force generated by plasma proteins that pulls water into the vascular compartment

Hypotonic solution

Fluid with a lower solute concentration than the intracellular environment

Starling forces

Combined hydrostatic and oncotic pressures that drive fluid exchange across capillary walls

Microglia

Resident immune cell of the central compartment that phagocytoses debris and pathogens

Primary thirst mechanism

Osmoreceptor‑driven response to increased plasma osmolality that stimulates water intake and antidiuretic hormone release

Interneuron

Cell that connects neurons within the central nervous system

Cerebral cortex

Outer layer of gray matter responsible for higher‑order processing such as perception and decision making

Hematocrit

Proportion of whole blood volume occupied by red blood cells

Hypoglossal nerve

Motor pathway that controls intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of the tongue

Synapse

Specialized junction where chemical signals are transferred between cells

Endolymph

Potassium‑rich fluid within the membranous labyrinth that participates in the transduction of auditory and vestibular stimuli.

Skeletal muscle fiber types

Classifications (e.g.

Analgesia

Elimination of pain perception without loss of consciousness

Rod photoreceptor

Highly sensitive cell type responsible for vision under low‑light conditions

Exteroceptor

Receptor located on or near the body surface that detects external environmental stimuli such as touch

Sarcomere

Repeating contractile unit between two Z‑lines composed of interlaced thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments.

Semicircular canal

Three orthogonal

Cochlea

Spiral organ of the inner ear filled with fluid

Cranial nerve VIII

Vestibulocochlear nerve that transmits auditory signals from the cochlea and balance information from vestibular organs to the brain.

G‑protein‑coupled receptor (olfaction)

Membrane protein that

Oval window

Membrane-covered aperture of the inner ear that receives movement from the stapes

Taste bud

Cluster of specialized epithelial cells embedded in papillae that transduce chemical stimuli from food into neural signals.

Calcium release from sarcoplasmic reticulum

Rapid efflux of Ca²⁺ ions into the cytoplasm that initiates binding of myosin to actin during contraction.

Flavor perception

Combined sensory experience generated by simultaneous activation of taste receptors

Pain classification (superficial

deep

Vomeronasal organ

Accessory olfactory structure that senses pheromonal compounds and transmits signals to limbic centers.

Pacinian corpuscle

Deeply situated lamellated receptor that is sensitive to rapid

Opioid agonist

Compound that activates opioid receptors in the central nervous system

NSAID

Drug class that reduces inflammation by inhibiting cyclo‑oxygenase enzymes

Special senses

Sensory modalities that depend on discrete organs with specialized receptor cells to transduce specific stimuli into nerve impulses.

Foliate papilla

Leaf‑shaped structure on the lateral tongue that contains gustatory buds for detecting flavors.

Cranial nerve VII

Facial nerve that carries taste information from the anterior two‑thirds of the tongue and supplies motor fibers to facial musculature.

Cranial nerve I

Olfactory nerve that conveys chemosensory data from the nasal epithelium to the olfactory bulb.

Cranial nerve II

Optic nerve that conveys visual information from retinal ganglion cells to central visual pathways.

Creatine‑phosphate system

Immediate energy pathway that rapidly donates a phosphate group to ADP to regenerate ATP during short

Tapetum lucidum

Reflective layer behind the retina that redirects photons back through photoreceptors

Golgi tendon organ

Encapsulated sensor in tendons that reports tension generated by muscle contraction

Sliding filament theory

Concept describing how muscle contraction occurs through the relative movement of actin over myosin