Y1 Dev

importance of dev psychology

children aren’t just smaller versions of adults (their knowledge/abilities are qualitatively different from adults)

psychological explanations need to be developmentally plausible

we need evidence supporting the best strategies for education and social support

competence

true underlying ability/knowledge

performance

what we demonstrate

always limited by other factors, so can never get pure measures of competence (eg. cognition, social/cultural context)

Piaget

most influential developmental psychologist

argued that children lack certain competencies at particular ages

conservation - can’t understand that water poured from small glass into big glass will be the same amount, even when it looks different

criticism - kids might expect something to have changed if an adult does something, then asks what has changed

Vygotsky

developed the sociocultural approach to understand how social and cultural influences affect children’s development

the unity of child and context

human evolution

we are born long before brain development is complete, so need intensive, proximal care during early childhood

we have a long childhood period (12 years, then puberty)

• continuing brain development even at 25 years

several cultures do ‘cooperative breeding’ of a child by many adults

as brain/body proportion increases, so does the time taken until sexual maturity

biological parents and other family members have cared for a growing infant

• institutionalisation of non-parental care in nurseries and schools created a need for the infant to bond with adults who are in a position to care for them

  • need for attachment to primary carer

  • motivation to be ‘likeable’ to all potential carers

attachment

the bond that an infant forms with their primary caregiver, characterised by proximity and feelings of being comforted and content

Bowlby’s attachment theory

revolutionary

influenced by empirical findings that there is an evolutionarily urge to bond with a caregiver (not simply because the infants need feeding)

contrasts to the psychoanalytic views of the time, that based mother-child relationship on mothers fulfilling the child’s primary needs

• but follows Freud’s idea that early childhood experiences determine future

has 5 phases of attachment development

lifelong significance of attachment

initial attachment creates an internal working model - a cognitive prototype influencing a person’s perception of our reactions to other relationships)

the views on attachment stability follows from Freud’s psychoanalytic ideas on how early childhood experiences determine their future

5 phases of attachment development (Bowlby)

first few months - orienting towards people indiscriminately

5-7 months - orienting and preferentially engaging with the caregiver

7-9 months - crawling to the caregiver and expressing distress when separated from them (onset of attachment)

2-3 years - goal-corrected partnership where the child also accommodates the caregiver’s needs (waits for their return)

4+ years - switch from physical proximity to more abstract emotional closeness

internal working model

a cognitive prototype influencing a person’s perception of other relationships, and our reactions to them

lifelong significance of secure attachment at infancy

associated with:

• more curiosity and problem solving at 2, social confidence at 3 and empathy at 5 (Oppenheim et al)

• fewer internalising and externalising behaviours at 3 (McCartney et al)

• social competence (Groh et al)

Ainsworth’s attachment styles - strange situation

longitudinal observations of mother-infant interactions

children presented with a separation scenario and asked how they would feel in that situation

high validity and reliability

avoidant, secure or anxious

type D (disorganised) has no obvious behaviour pattern

type A attachment

dismissive/avoidant

when separated, infant is not distressed

at reunion, infant ignores adult, turns away and averts gaze

type B attachment

secure

when separated, infant may be distressed but recovers fairly quickly

actively seeks proximity at reunion, interacts with adult

type C attachment

anxious/ambivalent

when separated, infant may be distressed/oblivious to being alone

at reunion, seeks proximity, but then resists interaction

universality hypothesis

when given an opportunity, most infants become attached to at least 1 specific caregiver

true in all examined cultures

normativity hypothesis

most infants are securely attachment in contexts that are not inherently threatening to health and survival

true in most cultures

sensitivity hypothesis

attachment security depends on sensitive and prompt responses to the infants signals

varied among cultures

competence hypothesis

secure attachment leads to positive child outcomes

varied among cultures

• more powerful when it goes beyond mother-infant attachment

origins of attachment

parental factors

child factors

cultural factors

origins of attachment - parental factors

meta-analysis of 66 studies

self-evident behaviour groups based on Ainsworth’s original scale

• sensitivity - mother’s ability to perceive infant’s signals, and response promptly and appropriately

• contiguity - frequency of mother’s responding to infant’s signals (reciprocity)

• physical contact

• cooperation - whether mother intrudes/interferes with infant

other behaviour groups defined by experts

• synchrony

• mutuality (sharing of a feeling/relationship)

  • these 2 are as important as sensitivity

• emotional support (words, hugging)

• positive attitude

• stimulation

supports the orthodox view that maternal sensitivity is key for a secure attachment

effect size not as high as original Ainsworth study

origins of attachment - child factors

attachment style was assessed using SS procedure in toddlers with autism, development disorders and mental retardation, against a non-clinical comparison group:

• those with development disorders are less likely to have a secure attachment, than the comparison group

• suggests there are child-related factors that affect attachment styles

  • not just emphasis on the parent’s behaviour

origins of attachment - cultural factors

western middle-class assumption of a healthy maturity is individual autonomy

differences in socialisation goals in different cultures eg. society’s approach to strangers and stranger anxiety

wide variety in caregiving arrangements across cultures

cross-cultural evidence in scarce

maternal responsivity …

to infant’s signals is a key indicator of secure attachment

• the optimally sensitive mother is able to see things from her baby’s PoV

  • she is alert to perceive baby’s signals, interprets them accurately and responds appropriately and promptly

nature

innate factors

genes - hereditary material, that is unchanging over life

nuture

the environment

life experiences

social interactions

parenting styles

anything not genetic

• includes stress hormones, vitamins, things from outside world eg, smoke and pesticides

development

interactions of genes and environment (not nature vs nurture)

• these change over development,

• some genes interact with other genes and multiple environmental factors

romanian orphans

in the early 1990s, almost all children had severe learning disabilities at the time of their adoption

most of them ended up with typical learning ability once grown, but with a higher incidence of psychological illness

an environment-environment interaction

PKU - phenylketonuria

rare, inherited condition

learning disability caused by diet - reduced ability to metabolise an amino acid

treated by avoiding foods that are sources of phenylalanine

with a strict diet, there are no symptoms of PKU

genetically-defined (nature), but can be fully treated by diet (nurture)

dyslexia

word reading significantly below expected, given a child’s age, intelligence and education

3-6% prevalence

has a biological basis

manifests itself differently across language:

• transparent languages

  • where word-sound correspondences are invariant, fluency is affected

  • speed of reading eg. Italian

• opaque languages

  • many word-sound mappings, accuracy and fluency are affected

  • eg. English

• impact of dyslexia varies depending on the language

has a genetic basis, but manifests differently across language (nature and nurture)

genetic predispositions

where an individual may not be born with something, but may be at high risk of acquiring it (WHO)

autism, ADHD, depression, bipolar and SZ have common genetic predispositions

certain genes are associated with increased risk of some disorders

probabilistic causes

causes are only probabilistically related to effects

eg. smoking and lung cancer

• cases of lung cancer without smoking, or smokers living to old age, do not undermine the confidence in the causal relation

the idea that psychological disorders are caused by a accumulation of risk factors, each of small effect

• like physical diseases

environmental modifiers (triggers)

determine whether people with a genetic predisposition to a disease/disorder, actually end up with it

eg. someone may have a predisposition to being very tall, but only end up tall with the environmental modifier of a balanced diet

eg. someone with a predisposition to lung cancer might end up with it, if they smoke

positive modifiers

• positively change the effect of a gene

• eg. vitamins protecting against a genetic predisposition to cancer

• psychology-based interventions can improve behavioural, cognitive and academic outcomes

  • psychology can be used to change the course of development

  • all education is an intervention

differential susceptibility

individuals vary in their sensitivity to environmental influences, both positive and negative

Belsky - some people are more ‘plastic’/susceptible, and affected by their environment

• orchid vs dandelion analogy

  • orchids - highly sensitive, flourish in supportive environments, but struggle in adverse ones

  • dandelions - less sensitive, capable of adapting to a wider range of environments

Pluess and Belsky - does children’s temperament moderate their response to different childcare environments?

large longitudinal sample involving children exposed to different types of childcare settings

measures:

• child’s temperament assessed early in development to identify negative emotionality

• childcare quality was evaluated based on responsiveness of caregivers, richness of learning environment and caregiver-child ratio

• child behaviour outcomes assessed in later childhood

low-quality childcare - difficult children displayed more behaviour problems compared to those with low negative emotionality

high-quality childcare - difficult children showed fewer behaviour problems, compared to those with low negative emotionality

interpretations:

• environmental sensitivity - responsiveness

  • same heightened physiological reactivity may cause them to struggle in adverse environments

  • makes them particularly receptive to the benefits of nurturing and enriched environments

• higher levels of arousal - self-direction

  • seeks out more interactions with caregivers

  • results in richer developmental experiences that ultimately foster more social learning

male gender differences in different susceptibilities

show a broader variability in outcomes, influenced more significantly by environmental conditions

more likely to be affected by negative influences, but also to benefit more profoundly from positive conditions

higher rates of behavioural and emotional problems under adversity

• boys exposed to harsh parenting/high levels of family stress exhibit more externalising problems (eg. aggression and conduct issues, compared to girls)

• explanations:

  • slower maturation of prefrontal cortex, involved in emotional regulation

  • higher cortisol responses during stress-inducing tasks indicates their hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis (HPA) is more sensitive in social stress contexts

more pronounced gains in supportive environments

• boys with high physiological reactivity are more sensitive to positive environments (measured through indicators like cortisol responses)

• in supportive settings - tend to show significant improvements in socioemotional development, self-regulation and social competence

• in nurturing, structured and positive environments, this sensitivity translates into better developmental outcomes

female gender differences in different susceptibilities

tend to show greater resilience and less extreme variability in outcomes

more consistent responses to environments, often less reactive to both negative and positive extremes - compared to males

social learning

learning through cues provided by other social agents

enables cumulative culture - changes are incorporated into the repertoire and transferred across generations

• advanced social learning creates social transmission of information = traditions and cultures

especially important for learning about social conventions, which vary across time and cultures

babies learn passively, and through being taught by others

• their social learning is influenced by cognitive-motor development and social-cultural context

critical for learning about physical (instrumental) and social (conventional) aspects of the world

learning can be about:

• properties of individual things

• relations between things, and actions (cause and effect)

• social conventions

psychological theories of social learning

from Piaget, Vygotsky and Bandura

Piaget’s theory of social learning

children’s behavioural and mental capacities expand as their cognitive skills develop with age

child is an individual scientist exploring the world

cognitive skills are individual characteristics

infants use others as a source of information

predicts infants can’t learn from others until 18-24 months (when imitation begins - key mechanism of social learning)

children can’t put themselves in other people’s shoes until pre-operational stage

• egocentrism first (2-7 years)

learnt behaviours can’t be easily transferred to other domains until formal operations stage (11+ years)

stages of Piaget’s theory

1 - sensorimotor (0-2 years)

• coordination of senses with motor response

• sensory curiosity about the world

• language used for demands and cataloguing

• object permanence developed (understanding that objects exist even when not being perceived)

• egocentrism

2 - preoperational (2-7 years)

• symbolic thinking

• use of proper syntax and grammar to express full concepts

• imagination and intuition are strong, but complex abstract thought is still difficult

• conservation developed

3 - concrete operational (7-11 years)

• concepts attached to concrete situations

• time, space and quantity are understand and applied, but not as independent concepts

4 - formal operations (11+ years)

• theoretical, hypothetical and counterfactual thinking

• abstract logic and reasoning

• strategy and planning possible

• concepts learned in one context can be applied to another

conservation

developed in preoperational stage

the ability to understand that properties of an object (quantity, volume etc) remain the same, even when appearance changes

Vygotsky’s theory of social learning

children’s behavioural and mental capacities develop through social interaction, giving them the ‘tools’ of learning and thinking

set of activities the child can currently do = things they can do with aid (zone of proximal development) + things they can’t do

every skill we require is a cooperation of social interaction

social learning is the primary form of knowledge production

language is an important tool for developing mental capacities

a piece of knowledge, behavioural pattern or an idea is first constructed within a social interaction, then is internalised by the individual

Bandura’s theory of social learning

emphasis on WHO children learn from

identification processes on basis of:

• adopting behaviours

• symbolic representations

• similar meaning systems

claims gender related behaviours are socially learnt

• parents, teachers and peers reinforce sex-appropriate behaviour = child’s behaviour < - > child observes and imitates others, usually of same sex

Bobo doll experiment

• children imitated aggressive behaviour (especially boys)

• later empirical studies partially supported his theory

  • children are influenced by what they observe and imitate

  • however, they also act in line with their social identity and gender schemas

mechanisms of social learning

learning through observation, and imitation

learning through observation

happens while being actively taught, or passively while watching

relies on associative learning mechanisms

• X and Y tend to co-occur

• evolutionary ancient mechanism

useful in early development before children develop the motor skills necessary to execute the actions themselves

can be examined using methods of habituation, looking time, and predictive gaze (how well infants can predict what will happen)

in experiments, need to make sure the target behaviour is something the child can’t do yet, otherwise can’t know if learning is through observation or trial and error

learning to feed through social observation study

54 6 month olds, 54 10 month olds, 32 adults

infants predictive eye gaze tracked as they watch videos of an adult

prediction = fixation at the area of interest before the action occurs

experiment 1 - feeding action (manual vs self-propelled)

• infants watched videos of an adult feeding herself, either by moving the spoon with hand, or with the spoon ‘flying’ into her mouth

experiment 2 - combing action (unfamiliar compared to feeding)

• infants watched videos of an adult either feeding herself or combing her hair

results:

• 6 and 10 month olds predicted the outcome of a manual feeding action

• only 10 month olds predicted the outcome of a self-propelled feeding action

• neither predicted the outcome of combining action

the more infants observe an action, the better they learn its outcome

learning through imitation

first observing another person, then copying their actions

relies on the ability to perceive others actions, and map them onto one’s own body

emulation - copying the end goal of an action, without necessarily doing it the exact way as the model

can be assessed by looking at how much children copy the style vs the end goal of an action

• would expect more faithful imitation when learning about social conventions (not emulation)

over-imitation - copying seemingly unnecessary/irrational actions of another person

• can help faithful transmission of information across generations

• can signal one’s group membership

rational imitation in preverbal infants

27 14 month olds

infants first watched an adult switch on a lightbox by touching the lamp with her head, then given the lightbox to turn on themselves

results:

• when adult was free to move her hands, infants used their head (imitated)

• when adult wasn’t free to move her hands, infants used their hands (emulated)

infants understand others action goals, at as young as 14 months

infants imitation takes action rationality into account

• may not be mature enough to learn social conventions yet

imitation for learning instruments vs conventions

57 6-8 year olds from Vanuatu, 85 from USA

children watched an adult make a necklace, then made on themselves

2 conditions:

• instrumental - i am going to make a necklace (individual preference)

• conventional - everyone makes a necklace like this (social pressure/norm)

• used seemingly unnecessary actions in both conditions

results:

• children imitated more faithfully in conventional than instrumental

• those from Vanuatu imitated more than US children in instrumental

• US children only faithfully imitated when learning about conventional actions, not instrumental preferences

• for conventional learning, both countries imitated faithfully

  • cultures values (autonomy in US vs conformity in Vanuatu) guide children’s imitations

DSM-V for autism

part 1

• social and communication characteristics are considered as one clinical aspect

• autism spectrum disorder - clinically significant persistent deficits in social communication and interactions, as manifest by deficits in all of the following:

  • social-emotional reciprocity

  • non-verbal communication

  • developing, maintaining and understanding relationships

part 2

• restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests and activities as manifested by at least 2 of the following:

  • stereotyped motor/verbal behaviours, unusual sensory behaviours

  • excessive adherence to routines and ritualised patterns of behaviour

  • restricted, fixed interests

  • abnormal responses to sensory stimuli

• symptoms must be presented in early childhood, but may not become fully manifested until social demands exceed limited capacities

definition - deficits in social functioning and communication, and in repetitive behaviours/restricted interests

how many people are autistic

1-2% in England - 2023

a 787% exponential increase in prevalence of autism diagnosis between 1998 and 2018 in the UK

• incidence - true rate

• prevalence - recorded rate

  • incidence is constant, but prevalence increases

    • better/more available diagnosis? change in diagnosis? broader diagnostic criteria?

60-70% of UK autistic people may have a learning disability

29% of people with learning disabilities are autistic

disability - physical/mental impairment that has substantial and long-term negative effects in the ability to do normal daily activities

disorder - a group of systems involving abnormal behaviours or physiological conditions, persistent/intense distress, or a disruption of physiological functioning

• no meaningful, obvious distinction here

downsides to autism

some feel alienated and misunderstood, can feel frustrated by the barrier that their condition puts between themselves and neurotypicals

bullying of ASD children is very common, because bullies single out those who are different

upset when routines are broken or expectations are not met

medical model – things are going wrong because the autistic person is behaving/feeling differently

social model – things are going wrong because the people around the autistic person are behaving in a way that is not well-matched to the needs of them

improving communication in autism

the Lancet published an encouraging study of 152 children with ASD aged 2 -4 years

2x a month for 6 months, parents watched videos of their interactions with their children

• a therapist paused the video periodically to discuss methods that parents could use to better engage their children and bolster their communication skills

6 years later, 46% were considered to have severe autism in the intervention group, it was 63% in a control group

• there is a scope for improving social and language functioning in a world full of neurotypicals

peer-mediated programs for autism - Watkins et al

reviewed various peer-mediated interventions in fostering social interactions between autistic and non-autistic students in inclusive settings

key findings:

• improved social skills – non-autistic peers who received training demonstrated improved communication and social engagement with autistic classmates

• increased social inclusion – autistic students reported reduced isolation and a greater sense of belonging in classrooms where peer interventions were implemented

• long-term impact – positive social interactions continued beyond the intervention period, with changes in peer dynamics sustained over time

limited research on academic outcomes

• while social benefits were clear, the study did not extensively measure the impact of peer training on academic performance

• leaving a gap in understanding the full scope of the interventions impact

there is the need for ongoing support

peer-sensitivity training for autism - Roberts & Simpson

reviewed peer awareness interventions and their effectiveness in increasing understanding and acceptance of autistic students in schools

findings:

• positive impact on social inclusion – programs that involved interactive learning showed greater success in fostering positive peer relationships and improving social inclusion of autistic students

  • eg. role playing, empathy building and direct discussions about autism

• reduced stigma – increased the likelihood of autistic students being included in group activities and social interactions

• varied program effectiveness – ongoing programs have a greater long term impact

neurodiversity perspective of autism

increasing recognition of autism as a difference, rather than a disorder

promoting a social model of disability (but this can gloss over serious difficulties that are not obviously social in nature)

AuDHD

autism and ADHD

85% of people with autism exhibit ADHD symptoms

co-occurrence requires careful assessment and tailored interventions

ADHD

attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder

defined by combination of symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity

3 types:

• predominantly inattentive

• hyperactivity/impulsivity

• combined

subtypes of ADHD

ADHD with hyperactivity is ADD, separate from ADHD

has different neuropsychological profiles:

• ADD - working memory and processing speed

• ADHD - inhibitory control

different neurobiological basis (dopamine vs norepinephrine)

different patterns of comorbidity and social impairment

Kaplan et al - are different diagnoses distinct

sample of 179 children, recruited from clinics and special schools

all had dyslexia and/or ADHD

comprehensive assessment for ADHD, dyslexia, DCD

comorbidity is the norm, not the exception

• only 20% have just ADHD

Dyck et al - do measures discriminate

608 children aged 3-14 years

• 449 typically developing

• 30 autism

• 53 ADHD

• 30 specific language impairment

assessments of IQ, language, motor, attention, cognition, executive function

• lots of overlap in results

• same profile of person but with different diagnoses eg. ADHD and SLI overlap

disorders do not dissociate using these statistical methods

SLI - specific language impairment

language does not follow typical development course

not due to hearing loss, physical abnormality or acquired brain damage

normal development in other areas

problems with language structure (phonology and syntax)

common particular problem with non-word repetition

autism and SLI

prediction of independence - children with ASD and SLI together should be very rare

• ASD prevalence - 1%

• SLI prevalence - 7%

  • predicts comorbidity 7 per 10,000

many children with ASD have language problems similar to SLI

• poor nonword repetition and use of verb inflections (76% ASD with SLI)

• impaired performance on a language battery (57% ASD with SLI)

they can be dissociated, yet they co-occur far more often than by chance

• conventional idea of independent disorders seems wrong

• there are risk factors, not a single cause, as this is too simple to account for the clinical reality (nature vs nurture)

different diagnoses

norm is meeting criteria for multiple diagnoses, not the exception

with a single diagnosis, likely to be some needs not formally recognised

different diagnoses do not neatly group according to their scores on tests, but overlap considerably

• those with different diagnoses may score the same on a range of tests (same pattern of difficulties), but receive very6 different educational interventions, based on their diagnostic category

it’s objectively possible to distinguish people with learning difficulties from those without

masking/camouflaging

involves hiding/modifying one’s natural behaviour to conform to social norms/reduce stigma  

people mask to fit into social environments, avoid negative judgements or manage expectations  

can hinder accurate diagnosis and lead to underdiagnosis/misdiagnosis 

• especially in girls and all adults with ADHD who may present atypically  

common behaviours 

• suppressing impulsive actions 

• imitating neurotypical peers 

• actively monitoring body language and speech patterns to appear more socially acceptable 

gender differences

• studies indicate that females with ADHD are more likely to mask due to higher societal expectations for social conformity  

prevalence

• up to 60% of adults with ADHD report frequent camouflaging behaviours

• may explain high rates of late ADHD diagnoses in adults  

can lead to diagnostic overshadowing, mental health issues, burnout, imposter syndrome and social/identity impacts

diagnostic overshadowing

can occur from masking

where an individual’s symptoms are minimised/misinterpreted as other conditions

• eg. anxiety is under/misdiagnosed

Kooij et al

• adults who mask ADHD symptoms experience a delay in diagnosis of 10+ years, compared do those who don’t

females with ADHD are more often diagnosed with anxiety or depression due to masking

• 50% more likelihood of a delayed ADHD diagnosis, compared to males

mental health consequences of masking

increased anxiety and depression

• those masking have a 1.5x higher risk of developing these, compared to those who don’t

self-criticism and low self-esteem

• correlated with long term masking

chronic stress

• reported from 70% of ADHD masking adults, compared to 45% of non-maskers

there is a mental health toll of sustained masking behaviour

ADHD burnout

ADHD women who mask regularly are vulnerable to emotional and cognitive fatigue

imposter syndrome

adults who mask experience imposter-like feelings

as if they are ‘faking’ their way through social and professional settings

• can exacerbate mental health issues

adults with autism and mask report feeling more disconnected from their own identity - feeling like they are ‘living a lie’

social and identity impacts from masking

report of a higher avoidance of social situations, leading to isolation and loneliness

identity confusion, struggles of separating authentic self from the masked behaviours

prolonged struggles contribute to a cycle of mental health challenges

• masking intensifies isolation and internal conflict, leading to further issues - developmental cascade

implications of masking awareness

clinicians ask targeted questions about coping strategies and social interactions, to uncover potential masking

• improved diagnostic tools

utilising more holistic assessments, that consider gender differences and masking behaviours, may improve diagnostic accuracy

awareness of masking in teacher training

• helps educators identify neurodivergent traits in pupils who might otherwise go unnoticed

theory of mind (ToM)

attributing mental states to self and others (beliefs, desires, knowledge, emotions, perceptions, sensations)

our guesses/theories about other people’s minds, what they’re thinking and believing

essential for social interactions, and predicting/understanding behaviour

the foundation of empathy, communication, deception and morality

involves false and true beliefs

• false - inaccurate, don’t reflect reality

• true - accurate, current representation of reality

  • children develop true belief before false

  • initial studies showed it develops after 4 years, but this view is changing

acts as a mediator of reality

• tells us what’s real/not real

• deals with thoughts as if they are real

orders

• what do you think

• what do you think i think

• what do you think that i think you think

history of ToM

research with chimpanzees in 1978 (Premack & Woodruff)

• they consistently chose the photo that showed the correct solution to a problem presented to them

• concluded they can read other people’s minds

criticisms

• social learning through observations - are the chimps just drawing associations between actions they see occur frequently together, rather than attributing mental states to others

• don’t necessarily understand false beliefs

they can understand others’ goals and intentions, but can’t represent others having false beliefs

chimpanzees = goal psychology (perception)

adults = desire psychology (belief)

• children are in between these

methods for assessing ToM

different methods based on age and executive function requirements eg. memory and meta-thinking

explicit methods (infants express thoughts using language)

• false-belief tasks

  • smarties task

  • sally-anne task

implicit methods (researchers infer infants’ understanding from their behaviour eg. eye-tracking)

• violation of expectation

• anticipatory looking

false-belief tasks

explicit method of assessing ToM

includes smarties and sally-anne task

based on idea that as ToM abilities advance, children appreciate that own thoughts/beliefs may differ from other peoples’, and they may hold beliefs that do not reflect reality

smarties task

measures ToM about others false beliefs, and their own previous false beliefs

1. researcher asks what they think is in the box

2. they reply smarties, as it’s a smarties box

3. they open it and see it’s pencils

4. researcher asks what one of their friends would guess what’s in the box

   • children younger than 4 will say pencils

     • they can’t appreciate the other person will have a false belief about the box

   • children older than 4 will say smarties

sally-anne task

assess true belief as a control condition

1. sally puts her marble in her basket, then leaves the room

2. anne takes it out the basket, and puts it into her box

3. sally comes back

4. where will she look for her marble?

   • anne has a true belief about the marble being, now, in the box

   • sally has a false belief about the marble being in the basket

• children younger than 4 will say the box

• children older than 4 will say the basket

can be adapted to implicit tasks, by replacing verbal responding with eye-gaze tracking, and measuring children’s behavioural response/interaction

violation of expectation

non-verbal (implicit) measure of ToM

used primarily with infants

example: shown video of sally’s end goal

• sometimes she acts in accordance with infant’s belief (expected)

• sometimes she acts oppositely (unexpected)

infants with ToM will form predictions about how an agent will act next

• if the prediction doesn’t happen, will infant will react with surprise

• suprise reaction is assessed using habituation and pupil dilation

  • looking longer at a stimulus/pupils dilating, means they find the stimulus surprising/unexpected, so can infer what their expectations were

infants without ToM will be oblivious to the event that should have violated their expectation

anticipatory looking

non-verbal (implicit) measure of ToM

used primarily with infants

infants with ToM form predictions about how an agent will act next, and divert their eye-gaze to where they predict the agent will go, before it happens

• predictive eye-gaze can be measured using eye-tracking

development of ToM

early studies showed distinct shift in abilities at 4 years old

meta-analysis of 178 ToM development studies

• regardless of how ToM questions are asked, those under 3 don’t respond correctly above chance

• children of all ages showed improved performance with implicit tasks

• no evidence for ToM development before 3

recent studies show capacities begin to emerge in younger ages, but not consistently

2 major changes/revolutions of ToM

9 months

• basic ToM

• perception-goal psychology

4 years

• fully-fledged meta-representation ToM

• belief-desire psychology

into adulthood

• refinement of meta-representation (representing how other people represent the world)

• recursive, higher order ToM

precursors of ToM

children need to have a fundamental understanding of:

• self-other distinction

• other people’s goals and intention (even when action goals are not met)

in order to formulate theories about other people’s minds

these 2 social-cognitive skills/precursors are in place by age 2, in at least rudimentary form

• they continue developing throughout childhood

both undergo a revolution at 9 months, in line with 2 stage view of ToM development

precursors of ToM - understanding of self-other distinction

24 hour newborns – similarity between self and others 

• infants look longer at social agents synchronously stroked with them  

3-5 months – self-initiated actions 

• infants look longer at live displays that are not contingent with their own leg motion 

15-24 months – prosocial engagement  

• toddlers share resources, help and comfort others in need, indicating they can identify other people’s thoughts/beliefs  

precursors of ToM - understanding of others goals and intentions

6 months – goal understanding 

• infants predict the outcome of others’ actions if these actions are familiar to them eg. feeding 

9 months – intention understanding, even when action goals are not met 

• infants patiently wait if an adult is unwilling to give them a toy vs when the adult is trying but unable to do so 

interventions

any treatment undertaken to halt, manage or alter the course of the pathological process of a disease/disorder

action from psychotherapist to deal with the client’s issues

• usually takes place when a child is experiencing difficulties

• aim is to arise a change in feelings, beliefs, thoughts and behaviour

based on thorough assessment and formulation, not just diagnosis

has potential to do harm however

goals of interventions - medical model

most common

the ‘disorder’ is within the individual

identifies cluster of symptoms and biomedical origin of the client’s condition

focuses on reducing symptoms and improving ‘normalcy’

medical view for autism:

• autism is a disorder

• social-communicative deficits are within the individual

goals of intervention - social model

society is the heart of the problems and challenges faced

identifies social and environmental contribution to the client’s difficulties

focuses on quality of life, skills, goals and accommodation

social view for autism:

• autistic people have differences

• society is to blame for the social-communicative deficits

efficacy of interventions