AP Psych Unit 1 AP Exam Practice

Heredity

The genetic transmission of traits from parents to offspring

Environment

All external factors (culture, upbringing, experiences) that influence behavior

Nature vs Nurture

The debate over the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture)

Gene

A segment of DNA that codes for a specific trait

DNA

The molecule that carries genetic instructions for development and functioning

Chromosomes

Threadlike structures made of DNA that contain genes (humans have 23 pairs)

Genotype

An individual's genetic makeup

Phenotype

The observable traits resulting from genes and environment

Twin Studies

Research comparing identical and fraternal twins to determine genetic influence

Heritability

The proportion of variation in a trait that can be attributed to genetics in a population

Nervous System

The body's communication network that sends and receives signals

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord; processes information and directs behavior

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All nerves outside the CNS; connects body to brain and spinal cord

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary muscle movements

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary functions like heartbeat and digestion

Sympathetic Nervous System

Arouses the body for 'fight or flight' responses

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body and restores energy ('rest and digest')

Neuron

A nerve cell that transmits information throughout the body

Dendrites

Branch-like structures that receive incoming signals

Cell Body (Soma)

The part of the neuron that processes incoming information

Axon

The long fiber that carries outgoing signals away from the cell body

Myelin Sheath

A fatty layer that insulates the axon and speeds up neural transmission

Action Potential

A brief electrical impulse that travels down the axon

All-or-None Principle

Neurons fire completely or not at all

Synapse

The gap between neurons where communication occurs

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synapse to transmit signals

Reuptake

The process where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron

Excitatory Signal

Increases the likelihood that a neuron will fire

Inhibitory Signal

Decreases the likelihood that a neuron will fire

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in movement, motivation, reward, and pleasure (too much: schizophrenia; too little: Parkinson's disease)

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects mood, sleep, and appetite (low levels linked to depression)

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in alertness, arousal, and stress response

Glutamate

The main excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory

GABA

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms neural activity (low levels linked to anxiety and seizures)

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that reduce pain and increase pleasure (natural 'feel-good' chemicals)

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in transmitting pain signals

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory (low levels linked to Alzheimer's disease)

Brain

The organ that controls thoughts, behavior, and bodily functions

Brainstem

Controls basic survival functions like breathing and heartbeat

Medulla

Regulates vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing

Reticular Formation

Controls arousal and alertness

Thalamus

Relays sensory information (except smell) to the brain

Cerebellum

Coordinates balance, movement, and motor skills

Limbic System

Emotion, memory, and motivation

Amygdala

Processes emotions like fear and aggression

Hippocampus

Forms and stores new memories

Hypothalamus

Maintains homeostasis and regulates drives (hunger, thirst, sex)

Cerebral Cortex

Outer layer of the brain responsible for complex thinking

Frontal Lobe

Decision-making, personality, and voluntary movement

Parietal Lobe

Processes touch and body position

Temporal Lobe

Processes hearing and memory

Occipital Lobe

Processes visual information

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt

Sleep

A periodic, natural loss of consciousness essential for health and functioning

Circadian Rhythm

The body's internal biological clock (about 24 hours)

REM Sleep

Stage of sleep with rapid eye movement, dreaming, and brain activity

NREM Sleep

Non-REM sleep stages, including deep sleep

Sleep Stages

Cycles of sleep from light to deep to REM

Sleep Deprivation

Lack of sleep, which harms thinking, mood, and health

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep

Sleep Apnea

A disorder where breathing repeatedly stops during sleep

Dream

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts during sleep

Sensation

The process of detecting physical stimuli from the environment

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information

Bottom-Up Processing

Analysis that begins with sensory receptors and builds upward

Top-Down Processing

Using expectations and prior knowledge to interpret information

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

Difference Threshold (JND)

The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli

Weber's Law

The principle that the JND is a constant proportion of the original stimulus

Sensory Adaptation

Reduced sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time

Transduction

The conversion of sensory energy into neural signals

Agonist

A substance that increases or mimics the action of a neurotransmitter

Antagonist

A substance that blocks or reduces the action of a neurotransmitter

Psychoactive Drug

A chemical that alters perception, mood, thinking, or behavior by affecting the brain

Stimulants

Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and speed up body functions

Depressants

Psychoactive drugs that decrease central nervous system activity and slow down body functions

Hallucinogens

Psychoactive drugs that distort perceptions and cause sensory experiences without real stimuli

Addiction

Compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences

Tolerance

The need for increasing amounts of a drug to achieve the same effect

Withdrawal

Physical and psychological symptoms that occur when a drug is stopped

Caffeine

A stimulant that increases alertness and reduces fatigue by blocking adenosine

Nicotine

A stimulant that increases heart rate and blood pressure and is highly addictive

Cocaine

A stimulant that produces intense euphoria by increasing dopamine levels

Amphetamines

Stimulants that increase energy, alertness, and dopamine/norepinephrine activity

Methamphetamine

A powerful stimulant that causes extreme euphoria and is highly addictive

Alcohol

A depressant that slows brain activity and impairs judgment and coordination

Barbiturates

Depressants that reduce anxiety and induce sleep but can be dangerous

Benzodiazepines

Depressants used to treat anxiety by enhancing GABA activity

Opiates

Depressants that reduce pain and produce euphoria by mimicking endorphins

Heroin

A highly addictive opiate that produces intense euphoria

LSD

A hallucinogen that causes vivid visual distortions and altered perception

Marijuana (THC)

A mild hallucinogen that affects perception, memory, and coordination