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Year of the Four Emperors

A period in 69 CE marked by the succession of four emperors - Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian - leading to a year-long civil war.

Galba

Governor of Hispania who attempted to overthrow Nero, styled himself as a victor over Nero on his coinage, and was eventually murdered by the Praetorian Guard.

Otho

Chosen as emperor by the Praetorian Guard after Galba's death, depicted with a thin, realistic wig on his coinage, and focused on the security of the Roman people.

Vespasian

Hailed as emperor in Egypt, Judea, and Syria, ended the civil war, and initiated the Flavian Dynasty with a focus on peace and traditional Roman values.

First Jewish-Roman War

A revolt in Judea against the Roman Empire from 66-73 CE aimed at restoring independence.

Flavian Dynasty

Ruled by Vespasian, Flavia Domitilla Maior, Titus, and Domitian from 81-89 CE, emphasizing stability and orderly succession.

Domitian

Portrayed as a self-absorbed megalomaniac, demanded to be addressed as lord and god, and was eventually assassinated, leading to damnatio memoriae.

Trajan

Adopted by Nerva as his heir, known for military campaigns, social programs, and portrayed in art as a successful general with Greek influences.

Arch of Titus

Built by Domitian in 81 CE, dedicated to Titus as a god, and features reliefs depicting the spoils of Jerusalem and Titus being brought up into the heavens.

Apotropaic Devices

Phallic imagery used to ward off evil, seen in various forms of art and architecture during the Flavian period.

Hadrian

Roman Emperor from 117CE-138CE, known for his stable leadership, support for imperial consolidation, and personal involvement in Roman provinces.

Plotina

Wife of Trajan, known for her modesty and influence in Roman politics, including supporting Hadrian's succession.

Sabina

Hadrian's wife, depicted in portraiture with wavy hair and often as an idealized figure like Venus.

Antinuous

Hadrian's lover and travel companion, depicted in portraiture as Apollo and an Egyptian pharaoh after his death.

Forum of Trajan

Built by Apollodorus of Damascus, adjacent to the Roman Forum, featuring a triumphal arch, equestrian statue of Trajan, and captured Dacian trophies.

Basilica Ulpia

Large basilica within the Forum of Trajan, featuring a frieze with bull-slaying imagery similar to Trajan's cuirass.

Column of Trajan

Built by Apollodorus of Damascus, adorned with a continuous spiral narrative frieze depicting Trajan's campaigns against the Dacians.

Markets of Trajan

Constructed by Apollodorus, hosting shops and administrative offices, showcasing early use of exposed brick for decorative purposes.

Arch of Benevento

Victory arch south of Rome, similar to the Arch of Titus, featuring relief panels depicting Trajan's achievements and benefactions.

Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli

Built between 118-138CE, featuring the Teatro Marittimo, a pollimade structure mixing concrete walls with stone columns.

Canopus

An elongated pool in Egypt with Corinthian columns and replicas of classic Greek statues like the neiriads.

Serapeum

An open dining room in Egypt, not a temple, offering views of the landscape and Greek art, similar to Tiberius' grotto.

Provinces

Territories outside the Parthian empire that Hadrian consolidated, traveling to assist personally and contributing to art and architecture.

Commemorative coins

Coins from 121-130 CE depicting personifications of Roman Britain, Northern Spain, and Alexandria.

Hadrian's Wall

Built in 122 CE after conflicts with the Picts, marking Rome's border with forts, a ditch, and stone/turf construction.

Antonines

Successors to Hadrian, including Antoninus Pius, Lucius Verus, and Marcus Aurelius, known for the Great Antonine Altar in Turkey.

Faustina the Elder

Wife of Antoninus Pius, depicted in gold aureus coins from 141-161 CE, with heavy eyelids and a modest hairstyle.

Marcus Aurelius

Adopted by Hadrian, depicted in portraiture aging gradually, with curly hair, heavy eyelids, and drilled eyes.

Commodus

Son of Marcus Aurelius, depicted in busts from 175-185 CE, with heavy eyelids, curly hair, and a slight beard, known for tyranny.

Mosaics

Art form using pebbles or tesserae to create polychromatic designs, seen in various ancient works like the Alexander mosaic.

Antonine and Severan Sarcophagi

Expensive burial containers used to convey messages about the deceased and their family, remaining on view for friends and family.

Inhumation

Burial practice that may have risen due to Christianity, contrasting with cremation favored by the imperial family during the Antonine period.

Mythological Sarcophagi

Depict mythological scenes, relying on Greek models of figural sarcophagi.

Biographical Sarcophagi

Show scenes from the life of the deceased, distinguishing them from mythological representations.

The Massacre of the Niobids

Mythological story where Apollo and Artemis kill Niobe's children in response to her boasting.

Orestes

Son of Agamemnon who avenges his father's death by killing his mother and her lover, aided by Athena.

Amazonomachy

Battle between Greeks and Amazons, often depicted in art and mythology.

The Labors of Hercules

Twelve tasks assigned to Hercules, symbolizing his strength and heroism.

Severan Portraiture

Portraits during the Severan period, characterized by more generic themes and a shift towards lion hunts and allegories.

House Tomb

Popular burial structure in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, featuring inscriptions detailing the deceased and those allowed to be buried there.

Isola Sacra

Burial site in Ostia from the 2nd century CE, featuring niches for cremations and inhumations.

Vindolanda

Roman fort south of Hadrian's Wall, known for its archaeological finds including leather objects, wooden items, and textiles.

Vindolandan Tablets

Written records found at Vindolanda, including a birthday invitation and requests for clothing and beer.

Soldier Emperors

Series of 22 emperors in the 3rd century CE, marked by instability and frequent changes in leadership.

Maximinus Thrax

First post-Severan emperor known for his large stature and strength, depicted with subtle expressions and military-style hair.

Pupienus and Balbinus

Short-reigning emperors with distinct portraiture styles, emphasizing harmony and power in their representations.

Monotheistic Emperor

A ruler who believes in and promotes the worship of only one god, in this case, Christianity, which posed a threat to the Roman gods and their followers.

Trebonianus Gallus

An emperor depicted with very short hair and beard, deep-set eyes, and a worried expression, known for being Christian and facing opposition from Roman polytheists.

Probus

A Roman emperor portrayed as muscular, with a wrestler-like build, unique for his fully nude statue except for military boots, and facing internal conflicts leading to his demise.

The Tetrarchy

A system established by Diocletian in 293, dividing the Roman Empire into four parts with two Augusti (Diocletian and Maximian) and two Caesars (Galerius and Constantius Chlorus), aiming to maintain stability through strategic marriages and distinct territories.

Numismatic Portraiture

Depiction of the Tetrarchy members on coins from 293 CE, showing uniform attire and similar facial features to emphasize their collective rule rather than individuality.

Porphyry Bust of Galerius

A large bust of Galerius with exaggerated features like comical eyes and heavily incised hair, symbolizing power and authority in the Eastern Roman Empire.