oh dear

Year of the four emperors.

Galba- governor of hispania, tries to overthrow Nero- senate supports him. Nero kills himself when he realizes he has no support, resulting in a year-long civil war. 69CE.

Galba alienates praetorian guard, getting him murdered, and the praetorian guard selects Otho (once a friend of Nero) as the next emperor. However, another army hails Vitellius as emperor, and Vitellius attacks and wins.

In Egypt Judea, and (???) they hail Vespasian as Emperor and they march on Rome and on Dec.20, they kill Vitellius, concluding civil war.

First Jewish-Roman war- 66-73CE. Large scale revolt of Judea against Roman empire to try and restore independence.

Mount vesuvius erupts 79CE, and a fire in Rome in 80CE.

Galba coinage- 'victory of the Roman people.' Styling self as a victor over Nero as a tyrant. Depict him as an older man with full head of hair despite being written as having a bald head. No interest in being represented as eternally youthful, a more tough and serious look to evoke ideas of Roman republic.

Otho coinage- 'security of the Roman people' 'had plucked hair and a thin, realistic wig.' The artificial tight rows of curls, the with more natural hair near the back of his head. Suggests that he does, in fact, have a wig.

Vitellius coinage- 'liberty restored' Described as very large. Very military hair style, but with heavier flesh. Lots of skin texture, expected for an older man.

Vespasian- 'peace of Augustus' Bringing the end of civil war.

Coinage to pay army with their personal coinage and to spread propoganda to the people, trying to solidify themselves as the emperor.

Flavian dynasty- Vespasian, his wife Flavia Domitillia Maior Titus (only ruled two year before death,) and Domitian 81-89CE

Vespasian as the 'anti-Nero.' Deified after his death, and his sons commisioned portraits of him. 60 when coming to power, 70 at death. Showed as serious and unpretentious. A career military officer more concerned with the Roman people than himself. Had very traditional values.

Marble head of Vespasian, 75-79CE- wrinkles on forehead, balding, lots of textured skin. Very close to the Roman veristic style, emulating the republican values.

Titus- considered a war hero because he put an end to the Judean revolts.

Devoted a lot of tiem assisting the victims of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius and was well liked because of it. Was deified in his death.

Vespasian started making coinage and portraiture of Titus to kind of shoe horn him in as his heir/successor. Also include Domitian. Promoting an idea of stability by suggesting an orderly succession rather than the praetorian army just selecting on their own whims.

Togate statue of Titus- 79-81 CE. Depicts him at 40 years old, shows him as heavier than Vespasian, and shows a bit of a receding hairline to connect him to his father, emphasizes their resemblance, has deeper folds and shadows in it.

Flavian architecture

Vespasian replenished Nero's bankrupt treasury, and used that to create an ambitious and politically astute architecture program in Rome.

Completed the temple of Divus Claudius that Nero abandoned- setting him up as a Pious emperor.

He worked on the Templum Pacis, to the east of the forum Augusti. Paid for with the spoils of the Judean war, dedicated around 71-79CE. Really highlighting how he's like Augustus in the form of a peace bringer. Porch blends in with the collinade. This is longer than it is deep, a new style of temple. Has it as more of a park than a forum, a more traditional space. Acted as a public art museum, housing paintings and statues that were looted from Greece. Also a lot of the things from the Domus Aurea were put in this public space as well. A lot of it is spoils from Judea, including the great menorah. Temple fairly unpreserved.

Vespasian started to build the colosseum, but was fully completed under Domition. Lots of dramatic, theatrical things held here. It's placed on top of the artificial lake from Nero's Domus Area, once more making Nero's legacy into public use space.

'Colosseum' referring to the colossal statue of Nero that was taken from the Domus Area and placed beside the Colosseum. Hadrian changed the statue??

Built using Roman concrete, laid a huge ring of concrete in order to start building it.

Used Annular vaults, supporting the structure and creating a sort of corrior. Uses gorin vaults, a series of connected barrel vaults to help support the people in the seats. Seating was mostly marble, but the marble was repurposed and has gone through several different uses.

The underground structures were the 'waiting rooms' for animals and gladiators. 76 numbered entrances, seats were numbered too using red paint.

Seating was very important when it comes to social status.

Decor in four bands- 3 had large arched openings. At the bottom there's tuscan, then Iconic, and then Corinthian.

Arches on second and third floor may have displayed statues- a lot of coins issued by Titus feature small figures believed to be statues.

Had 40 windows, has corbels above the windows that were there to help support the wooden masts in the colossuem's awning.

The ampitheater of Capua seems to be a smaller copy of the colosseum that did in fact feature statues, restored by Hadrian in 119CE.

There's also a relief from the tomb of Haterii, a freed woman and a priestess, shows the structures her husband helped to build, including the colossuem which featured some statues. 100-120CE.

Domitian

Portrayed much more like Nero, a self-absorbed megalomaniac, builds a lavish home, and drains the treasury. Demanded to be addressed as dominus et dues, lord and god. Quickly gets the senate to hate him. He is eventually murdered along with his wife, and undergoes damnatio memoriae. Very few images of him remain. The ones that do often shows him as a young prince with a full head of hair, even though he was supposedly bald- a contrast to Vespasian and Titus. His hair may be an attempt to connect himself to the Julio-Caludian dynasty, but it may also just be convention at the time. He is 40 in 90CE. Not quite Augustan idealism, still holds some verism.

Equestrain bronze statue of Domitian, 95CE. In a temple dedicated to deified Vespasian and Titus. Hercules strangling snakes and a gorgon are featured on his breastplate. Apparently a lot of his imagery related him to Hercules, since Vespasian was related to Jupiter. He's not dressed for military or battle, and his horse appears afraid on whatever it's headed towards- uncommon. May be in a hunting position rather than battle. First evidence for imperial hunting imagery. Redefining virtus, the idea of masculinity with a focus on hunting.

He erects a temple to Minerva, further connecting him with Hercules.

Flavian women

Different from Flavian men- All shown as young and beautiful, and engaged with very elaborate hairstyle trends.

Corlscrew curls made with a drill, a lot of added depth.

Bust of a Flavian woman, 90CE. Unidentified, but important enough for multiple copies.

High crown of curls, based on Greek statuary. Meant to portray the Flavian woman as Venus. 90CE.

Nude portraits not meant to be literal representations of a body, just used to convey a message relating the women to Venus.

Marcia Furnilla as Venus, may be a funerary statue, 79-81CE or maybe Trajanic. She has a more veristic face despite the young body.

Apodyterium, suburban baths, Pompeii.

Seen in the change rooms.

House of the Vettii, owned by freedmen. Potentially to make their slaves laugh? Multiple images in that room. Also has Priapus in the entrance hall. Used as a protector for traders. May also be aprotropaic?

Apotropaic devices- phallic imagery used to ward off evil.

Domus Augustana- private

Domus Flavia- public

Stadium of Domitian, 86CE- ended up being converted into a piazza, still here in modern day Rome.

Arch Titus- 81CE in Sacra, Rome. Built by Domitian, dedicated to Titus as a god after his passing.

Arch of Augustus, end of 1st century BCE- inspired the Arch of Titus

Composite capitals from the arch of Titus, Rome- has elements from the iconic and Corinthian styles of columns.

Refers to victory in Judea, and reflect Titus' 'triumph over death' as he is deified.

Arch has a relief on the underside of the arch showing Titus being brought up into the heavens.

Has a relief showing the parade with the spoils of Jerusalem. Has a lot of depth and movement in the carving style. The depth of the carving did result in more damage, as they eroded more easily and parts of the relief fell off. Close to the account of Josephus of this event.

Another relief of the triumph, has victory behind Titus placing a victory crown on his head. May have Honos or just the Roman people. May also have Virtus or Roma leading the horses. First time this interaction of mortals and gods in a public space, though did not cause quite as much of a commotion because Titus has been deified.

Domition get Damnatio Memoriae.

Domitian's equestrian statue was recast as Nerva's head, and the Cancellaria relife of the profectio of Domitian, 93-96CE, which was re-carved as Nerva. The hair hoever is not changed, making the change very obvious.

Domitian was assasinated, so the senate selected Marcus Cocceius Nerva, a 66 year old man and a senator who was seen as a figure of stability and staunch supporter of the senate's position. Reighned 96CE-98CE, as he was elderly and had no heir, and wasn't well-liked by the praetorian guard. He adopts Trajan, a well-liked general, as his heir in 97CE.

From 96-180CE, all emperors were adopted rather than be natural heirs. the 'Five Good Emperors.'

Doesn't have much art.

A liong, mature face, hooked nose, then lips, and facial lines. Has the bangs commonly seen in Augustan and Julio-Claudian styles.

Head of NErva, Tivoli, 97-98CE.

Forum Transitorum started by Domition but finished and dedicated by Nerva.

Marcus Ulpius Traianus. Born in an important colony in Spain. Popular with the army. Had two major military Campaigns- Dacians and Parthians.

Was very well-liked, given title of optimus, meaning 'the best', much like Jupiter.

Senate wanted emperors to be 'luckier than Augustus, and better than Trajan.'

Instituted a lot of social programs to help with people's welfare.

Portrait of Trajan as victorious general, Ostia, 110CE- very similar Augustus' portraiture. Shows Trajan as imperator, has a 'bowl cut' military hair style, and will often have 'Augustan' bangs. Seems to stay consistently middle aged- not youthful, but not old. Promotes his image as a successful general. Has a cuirass and a military cloak, very traditional Roman victory imagery, but has Athenian Greek iconography showing bull-slaying victories conflating the crowning of a victor with an emperor slaying a bull as a sacrifice to the gods. Variation of Greek 'contrapposto.'

Bust of TRajan, 108CE to celebrate his 10th anniversary as emperor. Has the 'heroic' Greek nudity, still portrayed as middle aged despite being shortly before his death, paludamentum (the cloak draped over the shoulder), has a chest strap where a sword would've been to still highlight military achievement, not veristic

Publicus Aelius Hadrianus. Native to the same colony in Spain. Was a ward of Trajan and marries his niece Savina. Trajan never officially adopts him, making the succession uncertain, but supposedly Trajan's wife Plotina signed off on Hadrian's succession. Tricky, since she wasn't supposed to insert herself into 'political matters.' People believed that his authority was because of Plotina and not Trajan. Withdrew from the Parthian territories, and supports imperial consolidation rather than expansion, as they didn't have enough resources. 117CE-138CE in power, long and stable, attentive leader, extending domestic policies from Trajan, and travelled the Roman provinces to personally attend to issues and paid for things like aqueducts. Often lowered or forgave taxes. Publicly celebrated Greek culture in his personal life, and travelled through Greece as well.

Bronze portait of Hadrian, camp of the sixth, 135CE and Marble bust of Hadrian, Tivoli, 125-130CE. First emperor depicted with a full beard, could be to connect himself to Greek philosopher and citizens, or perhaps to cover up acne scarring. Started a trend in all future portraiture. Has more detailed, curly hair. Used Greek statesmen as model for his portraiture. Comes to power at 41, and portraiture keeps him at that age, has a lot of Greek idealism.

The bronze statue was at a military camp, specifically the camp of the Sixth Roman legion. Dated during the Bar Kokhba revolt 132-135 because Hadrian wanted to build over where a Jewish temple was. Statue has the final battle in the tale of Anaeas on his cuirass, his defeat of an emperor.

Hadrian as imperator, Hierapynta, 120-125CE. Has the cuirass, paludamentum, boots, and an elaborate wreath. Shows the crowning of Minerva on the cuirass, meant to show the 'triumph' of Rome over Greece and the 'barbarian' world- also shown by Hadrian stepping on a foe. Trend may have started with Trajan, and then was continued.

Plotina- wife of TRajan. Head of Plotina, 112CE. Forever middle aged, the 'perfect model' of ancient virtues, modest, modest hairstyle. Modest in number of attendants, as written by Pliny the Younger.

Sabina- Hadrian's wife. Vieled bust, 136-138CE. Has wavy hair with a centre part, common in portraiture of Greek goddesses. Bust retained some paint, showing she has black hair, brown eyes, and purple garments. Bust similar to her coinage from the period right before Hadrian's death.. Always the 'imperial princess.'

Sabina as Venus, Ostia, 117CE. In 'wet drapery' modelled after a seperate statue of Aphdrodite. Youthful and idealized face, hair braided and wrapped around her head, and has a simpler hairstyle in later portraiture.

Trajan and Hadrian's artistic subject matter is very different but very stylistically similar. A lot of Greek mythological figures on public architecture. Continuing experimentation with concrete by Apollodorus of Damascus and Hadrian himself, who was a skilled architect himself??? Nice!

Antinuous- Hadrian's lover and travel companion. Most of his portraiture is from after his death.

Statue of Apollo, copied from a work in 5th century BCE

Antinuous as Apollo, Delphi, 130-138CE. Very Greek posture, very youthful face with distinct curls made using drills.

Antinuous as an Egyptian pharoah, Hadrian's villa, Tivoli, 130-138CE. Antinuous died in Egypt on a cruise. Very Egyptian posture, stiff, arms out in front. Knee is slightly bent, showing just a bit of movement. Drill used to set oout the pupils, also seen on portraiture of Sabina.

Trajan founded a new city and erected a giant trophy in 109CE to celebrate his victory over the Dacians in roughly 102CE.

Forum of Trajan built by Apollodorus of Damascus, right next to the Roman Forum, paid for by the spoils of his wars. Emulates Augustus' forum, but has a big basilica Temple added after Trajan's death dedicated to his deified self, had two libraries on the sides of the courtyard beside it. Originally had a triumphal arch leading in, but it was commemorated on coinage. Coinage- 112CE, shows a crowning victory on the top of it, as well as Dacian captives tied to trophies. Contained an equestrian statue of Trajan. Captured Dacian 'trophies' were likely on top of the roofing.

Equestrian Statue featured on coinage, shows him trampling an enemy, 105CE.

Coinage will often mess with the sizing of objects so that the details they deem important are more visible/stand out more. Still attempt to be faithful to the original, though.

Basilica ulpia- 400 feet long and 200 feet wide, not including apses. Two aisles flanked the nave on either side, entrances on the long side. Has a 'clair story' to help let in light and make the frieze inside more visible. The frieze has bull slaying imagery, like seen on the cuirass of Trajan

Column of Trajan, 112CE, built by Apollodorus of Damascus, has a continuous spiral narrative frieze, 128 feet high, originally topped by a heroically nude statue of Trajan, but now it has saint Peter as placed in 1558. Coinage of this artifact as well. Placed on a square pedestal, decorated with spoils from the Dacians, base may have served as a tomb for him and Plotina in golden urn, though it's quite small for an imperial tomb so it may have actually been beside the column. Has a 625 foot frieze, depicting the two campaigns against the Trajan. Has 151 'episodes' with 2500 figures, and the band winds around 23 times. Gets wider near the top so people below can understand, and was also likely painted. Maybe meant to be viewed from the balconies of the libraries?

Episodes

Roman soldiers bringing severed heads of Dacians to Trajan, 'proof' of successful completion. To the left, another battle is starting. Roman soldiers caring for their wounded. Decebalus, the Dacian king, about to take his life to avoid the humiliation of being paraded as a part of his spoils, considered a 'heroic' way to die. Roman soldiers building a fort. Mostly not battle scenes, some the process of preparing and Trajan sacrificing to the gods and leading the army. Lots of details showing architecture, but unfortunately this is not an accurate timeline for the Dacian wars. Needs to show Trajan as centrally involved in the process, make him recognizable. Remember- Apollodorus does this, possibly inspired by illustrated scrolls and the carrying of painted banners of military scenes, possibly also coin reverses.

Read 233-244

Remember- Caligula and Domitian experienced Damnaetio Memoriae. Nero did technically also overgo this, though it wasn't officially done by the senate.

246-257

Archaistic style- Tradition and dignity, mimics Greek archaic art (600-480BCE). Diana, Leto, relief. Apollo and Heracles relief. Static and stiff in style. Included the herms, very stiff as well. Including a why- Augustus used this to give the temple a sense of age and significance.

Facade of the double steps of the pompeii amphitheatre, 80 BCE. Has barrel vaults to give the artificial hill that had things sunken into it. Used Roman concrete, had gladitorial games, the Pompeii brawl, the seating arrangements according to class.

Relief sculpture from the Tomb of Haterii, had Hateria laying on teh lectus, only known example of this practice in Rome, has a lot of Italic conventions of art- she's the largest, the others are smaller. Has a groundline, and has an episodic nature. Haterius helped to build the arch of Titus and other architectural features.

Villa of Oplontis- 2nd style- phase one, columns on pedestals with imitation masonry with illusion of depth, phase two, framing, doors, windows, illusion of being able to step in, phase three, scaenae frons, faux panel paintings

Villa of Agrippa Postumus- 3rd style- columns are more spindly and unrealistic, sacro-iydllic scenes, lots of mythology

Vitruvius hated this shit, Pliny thought of it as popular because it was engaging to look at and much cheaper than the 2nd style because it requires less skill.

Livia is actually a 4th century copy from Egypt- original made in 20sBCE. More simple hair that's closer to the head

Claudian women stay idealized but play with more veristic portraiture, hairstyles become more elaborate, and playing with drills.

An unknown Domitianic woman, 90CE. Hair is very elaborate, drill holes are prominent, faces are young but slightly more veristic.

Markets of Trajan, built by Apollodorus, hosted shops called taberna as well as administrative offices. 100-112CE. Built using concrete. Bottom floor had a lot of single room Tabernas with a hhole in the top to let light in, doorways more like barrel volts. Hemi-spherical facade courtyard, opened onto back streets. Streets are essentially terraces into the hill. The facade is an earlier example of exposed brick, used decoratively instead of overed by plaster or concrete. Brick used to make pediments, and pilasters (rectangular columns.) Pediments are not uniform and change in style, grouped in units of four for aesthetic purposes, had no structural function. Groin vaults were those barrel vaults in the Domus Aurea. Used here to allow natural light into rooms and halls that would've needed a lamp of sorts before.

Arch of Benevento, 114-118CE, south of Rome, on a new road built by Trajan. Rome to southern Italy. Almost identical to the arch of Titus is Rome, architecture-wise. Acts like a billboard sign more than a traditional victory arch. Advertises Trajan achievements across his whole life.

Relief panels- bull slaying victories like his cuirass, building a new port in Ostia, him as pontifex maximus, giving money to the poor, kneeling personification of a newly conquered province, entering Rome. Himself as a guarantor of peace and security. In the spandrels, the triangles inside the arches much like in the arch of Titus, has reclining river gods. Has two putti, cherub-like figures, personifications of the four seasons. He's victorious through all seasons. Relief at the top of the arch- a victory crowning of Trajan . Two horizontal panels. A sacrifice at the celebration of Trajan building a new Rome and a program he developed to lend money in the form of mort\gages and use the interest from those loans to feed the children of the forums. Shows him distributing the funds to children, and women who are personifications of the cities that Trajan is benefactor to. Men carrying children on their shoulders, as talked about by Pliny the younger. First known representation of the lower classes in official art. Other relief. Jupiter extending his thunderbolt to Trajan, message of Jupiter handing over the power to Trajan to rule. Then, adventus of Trajan entering Rome, shows Hadrian next to him??? Confused timeline as Hadrian hadn't been adopted when it's believed this was built. May have been started in 114 and then finished and dedicated in 118 to help Hadrian solidify himself as an heir.

Hadrian again

An (innovative) architect. Restoration work Forum of Augustus

Baths of Agrippa

New Constructions

Temple of Venus and Roma

Mausoleum

Agrippa's Pantheon- completely changed it. Had work done on it by Domitian earlier, completed around 125CE. Replaced the Agrippan and Flavian versions, used the full potential of concrete Dedicated it to the original builder- Marcus Agrippa. Basalt stone used as the aggregate for a good foundation in the Roman concrete.

Pumice- used for the dome, as it's a much lighter stone and didn't add as much pressure.

oculus (30’). Let in light.

Heavens in the dome, earth on the lower area.

Coffers- lighten the structure without weakening it. Gilded-bronze rosettes (starry heaven)

Lots of coloured marble used on the inside, like the forum Augustus.

Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli

118-138CE. Named after a place he visited on his travels, though they didn't bear any similarities to their namesake. Garden called the Poikile, but in Athens it was a covered hall with paintings as a public museum.

Teatro Marittimo- was a pollimade, had a moat, the 'island villa'. Mixing concrete walls with stone columns.

Had a 'canopus' and a 'serapeum', recalling a canal in Egypt. Canopus was an elongated pool with corinthian columns, and replicants of classic Greek statues like the statues of the neiriads. The columnades are Roman, having an arch unlike in Greek architecture. The Serapeum, unlike it's namesake, is not a temple but an open dining room where people could look over the landscape and the Greek art. Similar to Tiberius' grotto.

Provinces- pulls back away from the Parthnean empire, consolidates the provinces, travelled around them to personally assist. Contributed to the art and architecture in these provinces.

Commemorative coins- personification of Roman Britan, 121-125, Northern Spain personification, 128, Alexandria, 130,

Patro patriei, father of the fatherland

122CE, Hadrian's wall. After a conflict with the 'Picts,' people from Northern Scotland. The 'picti' means the painted ones. May have referred to themselves as the Pecht. Vallum Hadriani has built, marking the border/frontier of Rome. Between 14 and 17 Forts along the wall, and had a ditch running paralell to the wall. 20ft wide, 10ft deep. Finished building in 128CE. Built by 3 different legions. Was originally only stone on the eastern half, then turf and stone on the west. It's a show of Roman power.

Antonines

136CE- Hadrian adopts Lucius Aelius Caesar

138CE- Aeslius Caesar dies, and Hadrian adopts Antoninus Pius and insisted that he adopt Lucius Verus (7 at adoption) and Marcus Aurelius(17 at adoption.) Hadrian dies, and then is succeeded by Antoninus.

Hadrian and the Antonine Emperors, Great Antonine alter, Turkey, 169CE. Includes Marcus Aurelius with curly hair and no beard, Antoninus with a beard, Hadrian, Lucius Verus at 7, and Faustina the younger who eventually became Marcus Aurelius' wife.

Antoninus Pius

Idealized adulthood, curly hair accentuated with a drill, drilled pupils, wearing a covered cuirass and a military cloak called a paldamentum, this bust from 138-140CE at the Villa at Lanuvium supposedly belonging to the imperial family, located in his hometown. Curly hair starts to grow in size compared to past emperors.

Very well liked.

Faustina the Elder

Gold aureus, 141-161CE, Idealized middle age. Large, heavy eyelids as a family trait. Wavy, modest hairstyle. Braided at the back.

Bust 1- 138-140CE, Lanuvium. Going for a more maternal image, as mother of the Antonine dynasty.

Marcus Aurelius- Portraiture gradully ages as he does. Despite being adopted, He shared the large, curly hair, heavy eyelids, and contrasting textures. Hair is very very emphasized in the 'prince' portrait 140CE. Eyes are drilled.

Forum romanum bust- in his 20s, close-cropped beard, drilling of eyes and hair. More deeply drilled eyes. 147CE. Made after his marriage to Faustina the Younger.

Succeeds as emperor in ???

Marcus as emperor, 170-180CE. Maturing appearance, same sort of hairstyle but much larger and a longer beard as well. Lots of drill use to give it depth. Heavy eyelids

Equestrian Marcus, 175CE, bronze, a gesture of greet and clemency, not trampling an enemy but sparing them, clementia (mercy). Benevolent power. Not wearing military gear, the victory is already won. Much larger than any human rider, making him god-like in a way. Similar to Augustus in the Boscorealan cups. Also much like Trajan's equestrian statue.

Faustina the Younger- gets the title of Augusta

Married to Marcus Aurelius in 145.

Bust in Hadrian's villa 147-148CE

Gave birth to 13 children, the first in 146CE.

The securer of imperial succession by having children.

Commodus, first blood succession in a while

Bust 1, 175-177CE, Lanuvium, part of the dynastic group, also appears on coinage

Bust 2, 180-185CE, emperor.

Heavy eyelids, curled hair, and a slight beard that isn't fully grown out. Drilled eyes.

Considered 'base and dishonorable, creul, lewd,' etc. Very Tyrannical, was assasinated.

Considered himself Heracles, had the senate call him Hercule Romanus, Wanted to be considered a god on earth.

Portraiture of Commodus as Hercules, Esquiline Hill, 190-192CE. Larger, long beard like his father, curly hair, heavy eyelids, looks almost exactly like Marcus. Lion skin over the head, apples of the hysperides in his hands. Held up by two kneeling amazons, an amazonian shield, cornicopi, Capricorn sign. Abundance, conquest over foreigners. This guy suuuucks!

Reinforced this idea dressed as Hercules when going to the colosseum, led hunts, accepted 'offerings' depicting him as Hercules.

Mosaics

Pebble mosaics started around 8th venturyBCE in Turkey. Originally made from pebbles found on the beach, little change.

Opus vermiulatum- worm-like work.

Tesserae- cubes, dice. Stone cut into particular shapes for more flexibility when creating mosaics.

Polychromatic.

Dionysus riding a panther in House of Dionysus in Pella, late 4th century BCE

Roman mosaic copy of Sousa's dove painting from Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli.

Sousa of Pergamon was known for making paintings in 2nd century BCE

Alexander mosaic, late 2nd or early 1st century BCE copy of a panel painting from 3rd century BCE of the battle between Alexander and the Persian king. Battle of Issos by Philoxenos of Eretria in the house of the Faun in Pompeii. Shows the 'trampled man' imagery, 3/4 perspective, etc,

Italian mosaic schools start moving away from Greek style and revert to black and white for a time. Use a lot of geometric patterns. Could walk around teh room and see the scene from all angles.

Black and white mosaic from the atrium of the house of Mosaic, 70-79CE.

Figural patterns

Portico of the Piazzale delle Corporaziono Ostia- a bunch of halls erected on the outside as the business offices of merchants and sailors. All contained mosaics. Done around 190CE. Many give the name of the business man, or imagery about where they come from.

Show a merchant's ship and grain measures on either side. One shows an elephant, showing the exotic animals transported from Libya for animal hunts and arena fights.

IDES OF MARCH BABY

KILL CAESAR

Public funerary architecture

Life of Vespasian- unburied bodies in the city, a dog could just grab a human hand and bring it.

Sometimes just holes covered with tile. Simple burials marked with a broken amphora allowing room for libations to the dead

Columbaria- underground vaults containing cremated remains. Means 'dug cot.' Relatively inexpensive, many slaves here, but more and more upper class uses these due to lack of space for masoleums and new laws from Augustus.

Columbaria ar Vigna, Codini, 1st to 2nd century CE.

Three year old child of two slaves, one to the wardrobe mistress of Agrippina and the other to Narcissus who was secretary of state under Claudius.

Mutus Argutus focused on the fact that he made Tiberius laugh.

Lots of maintenance of individuality. Enlarged lettering to make it more noticeable.

Stone grave markers- mostly outside the city as that area was only for emperors, writing almost always started with D.M., meaning 'to the spirits of the departed.' Then gives info on the person and their family and connections

Some grave markers also contained a portrait of the person.

Steele of the daughter of Publius, died at 10 years and 6 months old.

The Tunica. Just a rectangular fabric, started as wool then became linen. Pinned around the shoulders. Sleeves could be added- usually shorter sleeves for men, longer for women. Men's were knee length and secured with a belt, women were more floor length and may not necessarily have a belt.

The toga. Only for special occasions outside the home. Togas are heavy and made of wool. The pura/toga virilis/toga of manhood- draped around shoulders, off-white, may have evolved from the Etruscan tabenna. The toga candida worn by candidates for political office. The toga praetexta, worn my magistrates, some priests, and noble and freeborn boys and girls, representing their freedom and protection under Rome. Had purple edging.

Palla. A shawl worn by women, could be worn over the head to show their status as a mother.

Stola. Rectangular pieces of cloth joined at the shoulders with fibulae. Fibulae sometimes given as offerings to the gods. Worn by women.

Bulla- the amulet around the necks of children to help protect them against the evil eyes, Could be gold, silver, or leather.

Most funerary architecture shows people wearing togas wrapped around the wrist, women typically wearing the palla.

1st century CE- indigenous costume and dress, Roman and italic style costume, mixing of all. Assertation of ethnic identity. Women also often depicted wearing very expensive, trendy things to display their status. Funerary monument of the Treveran couple Blussus and Menimane, Mainz, mid 1st century CE. Menimane dedicates the tomb on her husband's death, Celtic locals from the area, used Latin as a statement of belonging. Has their son Tulius in the back.

Blussus wearing a Gallic coat with a hood, Pulius seems to also be wearing one. Pulius might be holding a bulla?? Menimane has a spindle and distaff, elaborate cuffs, tubular tunic, and a collared broach common to her region. Depicts herself as a wealthy Celt. Depicts self as a Roman matron, but is not a Roman citizen.

Flavia Solva, Noricum. Portraits of a family of four. Two parents, a son, and a daughter. Wife wears Norican regional style, daughter dressed similarily. Neck ring with a lunula pendant. Wears a Norican headress/bonnet. Might only be for adult/married women. The father and son have Roman clothes- a toga on the father, holding what may be his will- stating that he's a Roman citizen. Son has a sleeved toga under a sagam worn mostly by Roman military. Late 2nd to early 3rd century CE.

Women as perservation of culture, men as the assimilated people to obtain control.

Palmyrene woman in high relief, 200CE. Has strong frontality, emphasis on the head, oversized eyes, focus on jewlery and accessories that identify the subject. Ignores imperial trends. No modelling of the flesh, schematic presentation of facial features. Roughly carved hands.

Limestone relief of a man at simposeum, but with his children present. Roman toga wrapped oddly, girls wearing a palla and headresses. All of them seem to be smiling, did not adopt Latin.

Faiyum oasis in Egypt

Painted portrait of the boy Eutyches, 100-150CE. Freedman of Kasanios. Painted on a wooden panel.

Buried in cry sand, allowing for much better preservation.

Display the mutliethnic, multicultural society of Roman Egypt. The context is very Egyptian, but the style is very Greek, but wearing Roman imperial fashions. Wearing a toga with a striped tunic.

Jewelry in the hair- defining individuals and personal identity, maybe including beliefs.

Text on portrait indicating him as a Freedman, signed by a man named Evandros who seems to be the one who painted the panel. Only panel painter known to us by name. Greek artists responsible for painting the funerary art for the Egyptian tombs?

Greek styles seen in the painting- Tend to stick to four colours (red, black, white, yellow.) Naturalistic portraiture, singular light source.

On western and northern frontiers, women tend to be portrayed in ethnic fashions. (Celtic, German, etc.) Very distinct. Not always the case, some will be portrayed more Roman, but it was more likely for women to wear their ethnic clothing than men. Men will wear Roman attire much more frequently. May be due to conservativeness of female dress. Men always in the 'Roman political world', women always at home with the family, preserving their ethnic traditions and passing them onto their children.

Social persona for men displayed through role and rank, social persona for women displayed through dress and appearance.

'Barbarians' tied to military trophy during triumphal procession. Trophy is a tree trunk decorated with the armour and gear from the conquered people.

Antonine and Severan Sarcophagi

Cremation under antonine, switches to inhumantion for the rest of the population, though the imperial family keeps doing cremation.

Inhumation may have been on the rise due to Christianity?

Sarcophagi means 'flesh-eaters', and were expensive. Used to send a message about the deceased and their family. Remained on view for their friends and family.

Mythological sarcophagi, rely of Greek models of figural sarcophagi.

Biographical sarcophagi, show scenes of the deceased

Antonine periods

The massacre of the niobids

Mortal son of Zeus, his mother boasted that she was better than Leto because she had more children. Apollo and Artemis get pissed, and kill all her kids.

Orestes

Son of Aggamemnon and Clytemnestra, Orestes takes revenge by killing his mother and her lover and is chased by the furies until Athena assists him

Meleager and the Calydonian Boar, Artemis sends a boar after him because he forgets his sacrifice to her

Amazonomachy

The labours of Hercules

12 labours of Hercules, Mantua, 170CE. Shows him slowly growing a beard and aging as a way of showing the passage of time.

Severan period

Portraits become more popular.

Myths get replaced with more generic lion hunts and timeless allegories, with the deceased participating. Still has Dionysus, often accompanied with the four seasons? Possibly because of the mystery cult.

Dionysus and the four seasons, 220-235CE. Has satyrs, maenads, etc.

Combining of the biographical with the mythical.

Replacing Achilles and an Amazonian queen with the husband and wife.

The house tomb- popular in the 2nd and 3rd centuries for middle-ranks of Rome like tradesmen and skilled craftsmen

Has exposed brick, originally had wooden doors framed with iron, has a lip above the entrance, and a 'couch' outside to have a funerary feast next to the tomb. Some have little gardens and a hole in the ground to pour libations. Would have inscriptions over the doorway stating the deceased's names, family, freedmen, enslaved people, and the person who built and paid for it. Sort of a 'here's who's allowed to be buried here as well.' States the property line so it cannot be stolen

Isola Sacra, Ostia, 2nd century CE

Niches for cremations and inhumation.

Could buy a spot in a rich family's house tomb even if you weren't part of that family.

Commodus assasinated by Praetorian guard on Dec 31, 192

Praetorian guard appoint Publis Helvius Pertinax, son of a freedman, in 193.

Lucius Septimius Severus supported by army to avenge death of Pertinax. Marches in Rome on June 9, 193, purging the Praetorian guard and replaces them with soldier from Danue who support him.

Pescennius Niger, governor of Syria- opposed him, then was defeated

Defeats the Parthians for supporting Niger, then annexes Mesopotamia.

195- Septimius declares himself a son of the deified Marcus Aurelius, cancelled, Commodus' damnatio memoriae and deified him. Re-named his son, Caracalla, to Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.

Septimius' 2nd wife, Julia Domna.

Septimius is the first one from North Africa.

Caracalla 198-217 (born 188)

Geta 209-211 (born 189)

Meant to rule together, Caracalla is murdered.

Severan portraiture

Heavy curled hair and beard, tendrils hangin from beard (similar to Aurelius and Commodus, heavy eyelids, drilled eyes, drawing form antonine tradition.

'Serapis type'- four corkscrew curls hanging on his forehead, copying the Egyptian god Serapis who was a popular god in Rome. Emphasizing his connection to North Africa.

Depicted as imperator

Heroic statue of Severus, Cyprus, may have been holding spear or trophy, 197CE. Depicted as Mars Victor.

Coinage of severus with Mars imagery 195CE

Polykleiton Greek proportions.

Julia Domna

Born in Emesa, Syria

2 Busts of Julia, 200-211CE. Based on portraits of Faustina the younger. Long nose, curved mouth, heavy eyelids. 'Helmet' of curls, gathered in a bun at the base of the neck like Faustina the younger. Looks like a wig placed over her natural hair.

Had a lot of power and influence, especially after Severus' death.

Coinage of Julia Domna- shows her front facing with her sons on either side facing towards her on the obverse of the coin. 202CE. Shows her as the 'guarantor' of dynastic succession. Inscription say 'happiness of the age' rather than naming any of them.

Other coins of Julia Domna start to show images of Venus in a motherly context and Fecunditas (a fertility goddess.) These goddesses also appeared with art of Faustina the younger. Depicts her two sons with these goddesses.

This coinage stops when in 202 Caracalla married Plautilla, as Plautilla is meant to be the mother of Rome.

But motherly Julia Domna coinage reappears in 205 when Plautilla was banished, and now emphasizes cosmic motherhood rather than genetic motherhood.

Geta portraiture- Ruled form 209-211 while his father was alive, and is murdered in Dec. 211CE, and Caracalla has him undergo damnatio memoriae.

Group portrait of the family, Egypt, 200CE. Geta's faced has been burned away.

Caracalla bust 211-217CE

Very curly hair, beard is much closed cropped to the face, much more expression in his portrait, furrowed eyebrows. Broader nose, eyelids not as heavy. Hair is also more closely cropped. Portrayed as a tyrant, and was murdered by a soldier in southern Turkey.

Macrinus 217-218CE who arranged Caracalla's murder, has the severan beard but close cropped hair. He is murdered by the father of Elagabalis, 220-222CE who claims Caracalla was his father, only 15 when he takes over, then is murdered. Has Close-cropped hair, but he is 15 so no beard.

Then Severus Alexander, who was adopted by Elagabalis, 235CE, close cropped military hair with no beard as he was quite young. Wearing a new form of toga running over left shoulder and under right armpit. Shape of skull much more visible. More classical expression than Caracalla.

Military style comes back in because of Caracalla.

Lepcis Magna originally under carthiginian control, but shifts to Roman control as a modest harbour settlement. During the Augustan era, a theatre is erected here after enough wealth is amasses to make it, as well as the public market. Made with local limestone.

Severus gave them a lot of money as it was his hometown, expanded the city's harbour and gave them aqueducts, a forum, a monumental fountain, etc.

The arch of Septimius Severus- celebration of Severus' return home and the Parthian victory. Made with local limestone core and marble facing. Emphasized dynastic succession. Has unique arched bays spanning the streets, tall and narrow pediments, and was purely decorative architecture- the 'fantasy' similar to the fourth style of wall painting. Covered in friezes- victories, trophies, bound Parthians, figural friezes where there would normally be a dedicatory inscription.

One shows the imperial family sacrificing, and Virtue is placing a wreath on Severus' head. Geta is still there, so maybe the hometown wanted to protect it.

One is a homecoming chariot procession, has the emperor and his sons in the chariot, similar to many victory procession reliefs, but this one has no sense of forward motion and is very static and still. People face the viewer more than the direction of motion. Background figures sort of 'float' without feet on the ground. 203CE

Garbage of Vindolanda

Vindolanda was inhabited by the Roman army in 85CE, south of Hadrian's wall and garrisoned by auxiliary cohorts

Forts demolished and rebuilt at least nine times form 85CE-370CE.

Last three phases built from stone

Over 7000 leather objects- tent panels, military equipment, horse saddles, straps, toggles, children's toys, boxing gloves, a lot of shoes (over 4000).

Shoes include a man's marching boot, a baby's boot, a woman's slipper, a wooden bath clog,

Wooden objects- pre-Hadrianic toilet seat, barrels, vindolanda writing tablets,

Textiles- socks, insoles, wig/hat made from the local moss with antibacterial and anti-bug properties

Bone

Anerobic soil- doesn't have a lot of oxygen in it, so organic materials are preserved better. Exists in Vindolanda because of the cycle of forts being destroyed and rebuilt on top, sealing up layers of these things.

When armies left, they would often discard things so as to not carry a fuck ton of things on their back. Things that are worn out or can be replaced are tossed in the defense ditches (usually kept clear until it was time to go).

A lot of shoes in severan ditch.

Some things just left within the fort, usually pre-Hadrianic.

Lots in wells and waterlogged areas.

Shoes and the Vindolanda population

Tracking trade of shoes, fashion trends, height and weight estimations, wealth and status,

Status- senators wore bright red boots, equestrians wore black boots,

Praetorium in Flavius Cerialus and Sulpulcia Lepadina- woman's slipper, children's fishnet boot (allows for the colour of the sock to peek through,) adults wore fishnet boots too and would've required specialized production and were all in high quality, trying to introduce children to the military early

Podiatry- foot health

A shoe had an iron bar added to the heel for extra support, one shoe altered for a better fit. Iron often apart of custom made shoes by the commissioner's request. Some people would add in more hob nails themselves. They also added more leather to the insoles for extra padding. Cut out the back of the heel so it's easily slipped on. Copper on the insole, not sure why, maybe thought to have healing purposes?

Indents in insoles and it's length and width to determine age and gender

Soldier technically allowed to have a legal wife while on campaign.

Was possibly removed by Septimius severus in 3rd century CE

Women, adolescent, and children's shoes in the regular barracks, in the calvary block, in the officer's nest/the place where people ate.

Wives living with the soldiers in the barrack blocks

Vindolandan tablets

Birthday invitation to Sulpicia Ppidina from Claudia Severa, written around 100CE. Wife of a commander of a nearby fort. Her birthday was September 11.

1st handwriting- a scribe writing it. 2nd hand writing- Claudia Severa writing it herself. One of the 1st known examples of Latin writing from a woman.

Inquiring on the exact instructions for his men and a request for beer

A request for more clothing, including underpants.

Textbook 8-11 (wednesday pages)

The soldier emperors, 3rd century CE

22 different emperors, 235-285CE.

Big event in 238CE

Julius Capitolinus (historian)- the soldiers put heads of the emperor and his son on pikes and paraded them around. Disgraced him by not burying his body. Next two were well liked, but the praetorians killed them too.

Lots and lots of portaiture and coins from every new emperor to try and assert their authority

Very emotional portraiture, no more 'far off gaze.'

Maximinus thrax

Large, very strong man. First post-severan emperor. Became famous amongst soldiers due to size and strength. Long, straight nose, wrinkles on forehead and around mouth, light beard, lines around and under eyes. Some subtle expressions and looking to the side. Short, military style hair. Hair and beard insized rather than rendered in the (???)

Pupienus

Incredibly short cropped hair, only emperor for three month period, longer, curly beard (callback to Marcus Aurelius), lots of lines on forehead, lines by cheeks, heavy eyelids. Sideways glance, slightly more tense expression than Thrax. Trying to send a message of harmony between him and Balbinus via them having equal portaiture

and Balbinus

In the guise of Jupiter, broad chest without the defined muscles seen in Claudius' representation of himself as Jupiter. Less active pose, thicker neck, still the same clothing and the eagle peering up. (Sheer power valued more than grace.) Takes on the body of a gladiator/wrestler.

Trajan Decius

Very very short and insiced hair and beard, deepset eyes, wrinkles on forehead, worried and sad expression, long nose. Monothestic emperor, Christian. Romans believed that Roman gods would punish those who didn't worship them, so monotheism was a threat to their safety. They also hated things that could be easily practiced in the home because they weren't monitored and they did a lot of protolyzing(not the right word).

Trebonialus Gallus

Fully nude besides military boots, cloak over shoulder, bald? scratch that so short it looks bald, beard, stockier wrestler-like build, muscular legs, head is small showing change in value of proportions, less exaggeration of the mind, slightly angry expression looking to the side. Unique for bronze sculptors to insize the sculptures.

Probus

lots of infighting, has victories in Gaul and Danue, but after 6 years army hates him and he's killed.

Very unique portraiture. Entirely new style, larger eyes and thinner face, close cropped hair and beard is more blocky than others, more relief. More 'square' head, eyes are heavily insised, more abstract.

The tetrarchy- Diocletian becomes emperor in 285, promotes Maximian to co-augustus in 286, creates the tetrarchy in 293 with himself as the Augustus of the east and calls himself Iovius (jupiter) and Maximian as the one of the west Herculius (Hercules). Galerius is the caesar of the east, and Constantius Chlorus as caesar of the west. Marriages were forced on them. Chlorus had to marry Theodora and Galerius has to divorce his wife and marry Valeria.

Latin west and greek/byzantine east

All ruling from different centers not located in Rome.

Numismatic portraiture

Coinage containing all four members of the Tetrarchy, 293CE. The obverse has the eastern members, and the reverse has the western members. All dressed the same and have similar faces and likenesses, making them hard to distinguish without the coin's labelling. Trying to present them as tetrarchs and not just individuals.

Porphyry bust of Galerius- identified as Galerius as it was in the Eastern empire near Egypt, where he was in power. LARGE, comical eyes, heavily insized beard and hair, highly arched eyebrows, lines on forehead. Very iconic look, impersonal. Not a likeness.