Theory of Religion - Religion, Ideology & Science

What is a belief system?

- A set of interrelated ideas that shape how people understand the world.

- Provide meaning, identity and explanations.

- Make knowledge claims (what is true).

- Include: religion, ideology, science.

Key idea: All belief systems attempt to explain reality, but differ in methods and certainity.

What are the key sociological features of religion?

- Belief in supernatural/spiritual features.

- Baed on faith, bot empirical evidence.

- Offers ultimate meaning (e.g. life after death).

- Claims absolute truths.

- Often has rituals, institutions, moral codes.

Evaluations:

- Strength: gives certainty & comfort.

- Weakness: lacks scientific proof

What are the three definitions of what constitutes a religion?

Substantive Definition: The focus in on the content (substance) of religious belief, such as a belief in God or a Supernatural force. Exclusive/Narrow Definition.

Functional Definition: The focus is on what religion does for people (it's functions). Inclusive/Broader Definition.

Constructionist Definition: The focus is on what religion means to each individual person. Micro/Individual Definition.

What is the main definition adopted by Sociologists?

- Substantive, with its supernatural dimension.

- Steve Bruce (1995), for example, defines religion as 'beliefs, actions and institutions which assume the existence of super natural entities with powers of action'.

- Peter Berger (1990) views religion as a 'sacred canopy' or shield providing supernatural protection against, and explanation of, random and apparently meaningless events.

What forms can religion take?

- Animism = Spirits in nature

- Totemism = sacred symbols

- Monotheism = one God

- Polytheism = many Gods

Point: Religion is diverse across cultures.

What is ideology in sociology?

- A system of ideas linked to power and social groups.

- Explains how society work and how it should work.

- Often reflects interests of a particular group.

Examples:

- Marxism

- Feminism

- Capitalism

What characterises ideology?

- Partisan (based toward a group)

- Action-oriented (aims to change or maintain society)

- Non-objective

- Based on real-world issues (not supernatural)

Evaluation:

- Strength: can drive social change

- Weakness: can be manipulative or biased

What defines Science?

- Knowledge based on systematic observation, testing & evidence.

- Uses scientific method.

- Produces testable, falsifiable theories

What are the core problems of science?

- Empirical evidence (observable/measurable)

- Objectivity (value-free)

- Falsifiability

- Replicability

- Cumulative knowledge

Evaluation:

- Ideal is objectivity - but now always achieved.

What are the stages of Scientific Method?

1. Hypothesis formation - informed guess about the possible causes of phenomena.

2. Falsification - testing the hypothesis against evidence, trying to prove it wrong.

3. Prediction - establishing evidence-based cause and effect relationships which would happen again in the future if the same circumstances arose.

4. Theory formation - if the hypothesis is test, and cannot be proven false, then it is likely to be true and so it can become part of a scientific theory.

5. Scrutiny - scientific theory is scrutinised by other scientists and stands true until new evidence emerges which proves it to be wrong.

Why is Popper important?

- Science = open belief system

- Key idea: falsification

A theory is scientific if:

- It can be tested and proven wrong.

Evaluation:

- Strength: encourages critical thinking.

- Weakness: scientists don't always try to disprove theories.

How does Kuhn criticise Popper

- Science is not always open.

- Scientists work within paradigms.

Key ideas:

- Scientists fit data into existing theories.

- Ignore conflicting evidence.

- Change happens via paradigm shifts.

Evaluation:

- Suggests science is less objective than claimed.

What is a paradigm shift?

- When existing theory breaks down.

- Replaced by a new framework.

Example:

- Geocentric - Heliocentric model.

Why do some argue science is a belief system?

- Requires trust in experts.

- Not everyone understands science,

- Influenced by funding & politics.

Conclusion: Science may not be fully objective.

What do Post-modernists think about science?

- Science can no longer claim to the superiority of its scientific method, & it's claims of enabling humans to control and improve the world have become discredited as it repeatedly fails to rise to the challenges it faces e.g. antibiotic-resistant superbugs such as MRSA.

- People have lost faith in religious metanarratives & answers it claims to provide.

- Post-modern society is characterised by growing individualism, choice & diversity. People increasingly establish their identities through consumer culture and lifestyles.

How do postmodernists like Jean-Francois Lyotard (1984) view religion, ideology and science?

- They are all metanarratives, claiming to provide comprehensive explanations of the world, and often also claiming a monopoly on truth.

- They suggest such metanarratives are now lust one 'story' among others that are equally valid. In a sense, they are all just ideologies, expressing the different beliefs of a diversity of social groups.

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