Encounters with Material Culture

What is pottery?

• human made

• vessel

• made of ceramic / clay (finest particles of soil)

Four key ingredients of pottery

• clay

• water

• inclusions/temper

• heat

Inclusions v. temper

Inclusions

• larger

• either organic or non-organic

• maybe naturally occurring

• all-inclusive term for everything added to clay

Temper

• deliberately added by humans to the recipe

• more consistent/regularised

Both are used strengthen vessels during the drying phase and in creation/shaping

Pottery recipes

Each potter would eventually develop their own recipes, which would be passed down through workshops - specific technical choices can therefore be linked to particular groups of potters

Pottery making process

• acquire/process raw materials

• form into vessels

• dry

• decorate

• dry again

• kiln firing

Pottery - acquire and process raw materials

• identify areas with high concentration of clay

• ethnographically rare for potters to go more than half a day away from their workshops to mine clay

• largely found in rivers, acqueous environments, collected/pooled water, chemical weathered enviromnents

• could add particular desirable qualities through addition of temper

• kneading clay - wetness critical, like making bread dough or pasta

Pottery - methods of forming into vessels

Potters wheel

• uses centripetal force to create symmetrical tubular vessels

• can form relatively quickly

• useful for simple vessels

Handmade traditions

• common even throughout the Roman period

Coil building

• prepare clay into coils to form shape of vessel

• paddle and anvil used if a hammer was used to flatten coils together

Slab building

• cut sections of clay to join together

• more common in south-east Asia than in the Classical World

Mould made

• from encounters with glass blowers

• pressing clay into a mould

Pottery - first drying

• need to get rid of as much water as possible before pottery goes in the kiln

• reaching the leather-hard stage = outside surface dry, plastic-y

Pottery - decoration

• done when pottery at the leather-hard stage

• surface of the vases given treatments at this point - eg. burnishing (rubbing it to bring fine particles to surface)

• Attic red and black = effectively painting clay slip onto a clay vessel - easy to see what’s what (white = dry surface, orange = what’s being added, black cloak = added red, different pigment)

• solidly glazed vases the most common - dipped or painted

Pottery - second drying

• 90-95% water out of the pot - steam in the kiln could cause cracks or explosions

• significant time investment and seasonally dependent - needed dry weather for a prolonged period

Pottery kilns

• Updraft kilns = almost exclusively referenced in relation to the ancient world

• bottom part = stones, reused

• dome = mud bricks and clay, dismantled after every firing

• had to carefully stack vessels within the kiln to maximise space within the kiln

• need heat to be able to circulate evenly around the vessels in order to avoid hot/cold spots / under or over firing

Pottery kiln fuel

Charcoal

• burns hotter and more intensely than regular wood

• often can be produced as a by-product

Animal manure

• hay partially broken down

• high burning and long lasting fuel source

• particularly used if shortages of wood would be a concern

Pottery - firing

1) paint vase with iron rich clay slip

2) oxiding phase firing at ~800C

3) reducing phase raising temperature ~950C where clay slip begins to sinter (turn glassy)

4) reoxidising phase where temperature is slowly reduced - background clay (not sintered) turns back into a deep orange-red colour

Pottery - spalling

Bits of clay flaking off, during or post firing - crystals haven’t broken down, then came into contact with water and flaked off

Caputi Hydria

• attributed to Leningrad painter

• ca. 470-450BCE

• shows a pottery workshop

• evidence for master-apprentice model (large male figure at center, smaller men flanking him)

• master painting the base, apprentices doing subsidiary work

• only depiction of a woman in a pottery workshop - forming vessels or subsidiary decoration? No female artists who have signed Attic vases

Signed works

• Greek potters among the earliest artists to sign their works

• some signed by enslaved people or metics

• eg. “Amasis made me” - Amasis likely an altered Egyptian name, definitely not Greek

• Graphsene inscriptions = distinguish the potter who made the vase and the individual who painted it - if only one signature present don’t know which it is

• can link to specific kilns/cities or chronologically

Connoisseurship

• ways of accessing artists without their signatures

• particularly able to identify those doing figure work

• uses overall iconography, positioning of figures, etc.

• leading proponent = Beesly (Beesly database) - some unsigned works linked to signed works - some groups collated without an assigned artist

• Millin = scholar originally associated to some works rather than the ancient artist

• can be difficult to determine if it’s the same individual or the same workshop

Pottery - qualification methods

Total counts

• count all individual fragments of a particular shape

Total weights

• collectively weigh all fragments of a particular shape

Fragmentation

• how small the pieces are in your assemblage

• divide total weight by total counts

Feature counts

• count only rims, bases, etc.

• ‘compare apples to apples’

Pottery - minimum number of vessels

• standardised method of comparing pottery across different deposits

• use of defining traits (something there’s only one of)

• quantify the number of bases or rims preservered >50%

• only effective when fragments are well-preserved or large

Pottery - estimated vessel equivalencies

• fragments of rims or bases are individually quantified using a rim diameter chart

• total percentage for assemblage establishes a minimum number of vessels

• can be used even with very fragmentary assemblages

• can compare rims and bases - will provide a range for MNV

Pottery - gray burnished ware at Mitrou

• joins modern quantification methods, stratigraphic excavation, and seriation to document development of most common class of Middle Helladic pottery

• battleship curves

• demonstrates trends, evolution, consumption - introduced, increased popularity, dies out

• can demonstrate cyclical patterns of behaviour - eg. renewed popularity

Pottery - scientific methods of study

Ceramic petrography

• cut a thin slice of pottery

• polish it to several microns thick

• place on slide

• look under a polarised light microscope (direction of light particles controlled)

• different mineral fluoresce at different angles, so can see which are present

NNA (neutron activation analysis)

• powdered pottery

• exposed to nucleur radiation

XRF and pXRF

• irradiate something

• non-destructive

SEM (scanning electron microscopy)

• extremely high resolution digital picture

• can identify technology used to add pigment to base and firing temperature

Pottery - House of Many Colours at Olynthus

• Olynthus destroyed 4th century BCE - destroyed and abandoned within a very short period

• large area of the Olynthus site excavated 1950s/60s

• houses with large collections of pottery in situ, as they were abandoned

• pottery not necessarily where it would have been used in daily life

• distribution of pottery mirrors what we would expect

• bottom right = gathering of large pithoi, likely a storage room

• top right = used for symposia, krate in antechamber

• left = plausibly identified as kitchen

Pottery - from Eleon, with carbon stains

• exposed to fire post firing - vessels came from burnt destruction lair - household destroyed by fire

• vessels tell us where they were at the time of destruction

• unburnt areas demonstrate what was shielded from the fire (eg. bottom unburnt = placed on ground)

• material buried very quickly - sharp joins - not disturbed until excavation

Pottery - features/identifiction of technical choices

Handmade

• irregular and textured interior

• interiors reveal original methods of construction, as do break edges

• carefully burnished/polished exterior, finely treated

Wheel made

• interior marked by parallel striations from finger grooves while spinning

• deeper grooves likely indicate coil building, finished by wheel

Mold made

• identified by standardised designs

• 3D decoration

• inside smoothed by hand (uneven) or by use of wheel (smoother, some traces of centripetal motion)

Pottery - types of vessels (coarseness)

Fine ware

• less gritty inclusions

• often painted

• used for consumption of food/drink

Coarse ware

• lots of gritty inclusions

• used for transport and storage

• amphorae, pithoi

Cook ware

• coarse

• traces of use wear eg. burning on surface

• produced with a specific paste recipe

Coinage - Why do governments issue money?

• standardised method of exchange

• creating/enforcing a cohesive/national identity

• to present specific images/messages

• control - money = images = power

• convenience, portability

• to make state payments

Coinage - Strabo 15.3.21

• Roman author - adjacent to geography book

• made up - lots of Persian coinage

Coinage - material

Gold and silver

• difficult to obtain / relatively rare

• can be remelted/reshaped/converted

• easily malleable

• doesnt decay with storage

Coinage - production

• controversy over whether the metal was heated or not

• lower die placed in stationary anvil

• upper die struck with hammer

• metal placed inbetween upper and lower die, called blank/flan

Coinage - terms

Obverse = head, image from upper die

Reverse = image from lower die

Legend = writing on coin

Exergue = space at the bottom on the reverse, mainly contains information

Field = blank space

Type = image

Coinage - beginning

• began as cut up bits of silver

• “hacksilber” = technically pre-coinage

• no designs

Coinage - electrum

• alloy/mix of gold and silver (naturally occuring in riverbeds in Lydia)

• earliest coins made of electrum

• variation in gold:silver ratio, standardised weight

• incuse = stamp going straight up into coin - demonstrate same material throughout? different combinations = further meaning?

• stamp accepted as a sign on value rather than amount of gold/siler = potential for profit

• variety of designs eg. griffin, ram’s head, scorpion, etc.

Coinage - Ephesus (?) electrum state

• c. 630BC

• “I am the badge (or seal) of Phanes”

• likely made by Phanes - coin minting wider than just kings

• retrograde Greek inscription = written right to left

• stamping of coins likely coming from seal stamps - generally imprinted into soft materials eg. wax, lead

Coinage - Lydian staters

• head(s) of roaring lion(s)

• writing in Lydian on early coins = likely King’s names

• can identify mint locations from find spots only - small denominations less likely to move, larger coins used for trade so travelled further

Coinage - denominations

• Stater = 14.16g

• Trite = 4.72g

• Hecte = 2.36g

• 1/12 = 1.18g

• 1/24 = 0.59g

• 1/48 = 0.295g

• 1/96 = 0.1475g

• goes all the way to 1/192 (0.08g)

• names from historians, not antiquity

• majority of finds are big coins, easier to be spotted, more likely to be found in hoards

Coinage - Ephesus Artemision hoard

• 108 EL coins with die links between them

• also includes unstamped nuggets, jewellery, and other artefacts

• most recent archaelogical works suggests c.650BC electrum coins

• transitional period = some stamped, some not

• foundation deposit - an offering before the building of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus

Coinage - Aegina

• Stater c. 550-525BC

• Sea turtle motif eventually changed to a sea tortoise (??)

• Aegina the first to mint coinage in Greece - Siphnos used silver as a trade commodity

Coinage - hoards

• important to see developments in coinage and use

• general lack of information

Coinage - Athens

• coinage began to be struck in the name of the city after the discovery of the Laurion silver mines c.520BC

• enormous increase in coin production throughout 5th century BC

• mining was done by private operators who leased mines from the state and were presumably taxed on the amount of metal uncovered

• head of Athena on obverse; reverse had owl standing with an olive branch and AOE = Athens

• money affected the identity/presentation of the identity of the Athenians - used it to create an empire - philosophy, tragedy, and coinage all influencing each other

Coinage - Athens, money, and empire

• used Laurion silver to purchase a fleet

• Delian League treasury was transferred to Athens

• Athens received tribute from other Greek cities

• Athenian standards/curency decree = all allies had to standardise to Athenian coins, weights, and measures - except those using electrum coinage - old coinage could be reminted at mint of Athens for a fee

• use of money for power and control

• Athenian coins were famous for being pure silver, supposedly reflecting the purity of Athenian citizens - became their downfall as coins began to be increasingly impure

Coinage - contemporary views on Athenian coinage

Aristophanes Frogs

• citizens and coinage as interchangeable in a way - changes in one mimic those in another

• contamination = attack on citizenry - as coins become more impure so does Athens

• Aristophanes = anti-ginger

Lucan Nigrinus

• equivalent to ‘sending coal to Newcastle’ (pointless, have so much)

• Athenian coins widely respected

Xenophon Poroi

• goods brought both ways in trade to make a profit

• largely trade in goods not currencies - but from Athens could take silver/coins

Coinage - imitations of Athenian currency

• profit could be made through imitations

• some more inspired, some clearly direct imitations/counterfeits

• possibly an attempted association with Athenian ‘brand’ - trusted currency

• wouldn’t have to pay exchange rates/fees

• potentially a way of complying with Athenian standardisation while still maintaining local/individual identities

• chisel marks on some imitations (mostly in Palestine region) - testing silver? to keep it within borders?

Coinage - Decadrachm of Syracuse

• signed by Kimon (on dolphin)

• c.405-400BC

• worth ten drachmae, huge coin

• writing = on the right of the head, on the bottom dolphin

• right = Arethusa (nypmh), surrounded by dolphins

• left = charioteer in victory, being crowned by Nike

• part of the era of signing artists - huge level of detail in coins - some of the most beautiful coins ever made?

Coinage - era of signing artists

• c. 413-399BC

• intensity of the phenomenon was unique

• most occurrences in Syracuse and surrounding area

• extensive die links demonstrate an intense and short period of minting in Syracuse

• a result of competitions with Athens/Athenian coinage?

• demonstrates evolution of art - more movement - matches evolution of other areas of art

• because of sponsorship/commissions?

• pride in own work, or cities pride in artists?

Coinage - Coin of Syracuse (Eukleidas)

• silver tetradrachm

• c. 413-399BC

• found as part of the Ognina hoard

Obverse

• quadriga driving left

• female charioteer (Persephone?) holding flaming torch

• Nike flying to crown charioteer

• ear of wheat in exergue

Reverse

• Head of Athena wearing Phrygian helmet with three crests

• signature almost hidden in helmet details

Epigraphy - inscriptions

• memorialisation

• commemoration

• self-promotion

• often alongside a statue or other monument

• meant to endure past an individual’s lifetime

What is epigraphy?

• science that studies, identified, clarifies, classifies inscriptions

• key tool in study of history and archaeology as an analysis of primary sources

• usualy divided into linguistic ‘regions’ - eg. Latin epigraphy, Greek epigraphy, etc.

What are inscriptions?

• ‘to write on’

• a piece of writing or lettering on something, especially a legend, description, or record traced upon some hard surface for durability

What does epigraphy study?

• ‘a subdiscipline created by convenience and compromise’ (Cooley 2012)

• doesn’t include coins, papyri, or gems by customs/practice even if technically inscriptions

• boundaries are blurry, set only by convention, so permeable and flexible discipline

• about analysing inscriptions in context

Epigraphy - categorisation of inscriptions

• can be done in many ways - function, type of text, material, method, etc.

• all categorisation methods imperfect, allowing for exception or irregularities

• categorisations always incomplete

Epigraphy - funerary inscriptions

• most common Latin inscription in ancient world (just over 2/3)

• meant to commemorate the dead

• commonly include deceased’s name, age at death (often to closest multiple of 5), biographical details, character descriptor and/or expression of loss, name of dedicator(s)

• sometimes accompanied by images that projected the deceased’s identity

• inscriptions were expensive - therefore an expression wealth

Epigraphy - honorific inscriptions

• inscriptions which accompany the honour of a statue given to an individual - statues more likely to be removed/repurposed so not preserved

• often presented a (subjective) account of person’s career

• usually erected by family, clients, or associates, or by local town with public money

• reveal aspects of social relationships

Epigraphy - building inscriptions

• meant to commemorate the completion of a public building

• recorded the name(s) of those who paid for costs of the building project

• elites wanted their names recorded as great benefactors, so would pay for buildings and have inscriptions set up to them

• found in both rural and urban settings

Epigraphy - Agrippa’s Pantheon

“Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, consul for the third time, made this”

• not the original inscription as Pantheon damaged in some way so had to be rebuilt

• Agrippa’s inscription reinstated as already famous

Epigraphy - milestones

• combined elements of honorific and building inscriptions - would often commemorate building/sponsor of road as well as marking distances along a route

• tall cyclindrical or quadrangular form, located alongside a road

• not all had distances inscribed - maybe painted?

• originate in Italy in the 2nd century BC, conspicious in Roman roads until late antiquity

Epigraphy - juridical inscriptions

• laws, senatorial decrees, treaties, imperial edicts, oaths of loyalty, municipal and colonial charters, etc.

• also includes private legal transactions (inscribed in wax tablets, few survive), and military diplomas (small bronze tablets, grants of privilege to soldiers/units)

• usually inscribed in bronze and meant to be set up in public places

Epigraphy - religious inscriptions

• varied inscriptions meant to communicate with the gods

• prayers, ritual actions, oracles, dedications, vows, curses - could also be sacred laws or even calendars

• insight into not only an individual’s relationship with the divine but also local cult practices and social groups

• Christian religious epigraphy became dominant in late antiquity

Epigraphy - AE 1973, 367

“To the goddess Nehalennia. Lucius Sattonius Victorinus has willingly and deservedly fulfilled his vow”

• example of religious inscriptions

• only know about Nehalennia through inscriptions dedicated to her - safe passage through rivers?

Epigraphy - Instrumentum Domesticum

• catch-all category

• used for portable items that bear inscriptions, from amphorae to silverware or gems

• could be stamps or graffiti upon objects at the latest stages of production by craftsmen or workshops

Epigraphy - graffiti

• texts or images scratched upon a hard surface

• many types - simple names, drawings accompanied by letters, love poems, subversive texts, etc.

• uneasy category for inscription as not really meant to endure - written spontaneously, spatial context irrelevant

• ancient graffiti a neutral term, negative associations began in Victorian era

• many found in Pompeii due to its preservation

Epigraphy - Roman epigraphic habits

• inscriptions a distinctive feature of Greco-Roman civilisation

• epigraphy grew as Rome expanded throughout the Mediterranean

• cultural phenomenon tied to Romanisation, urbanisation, and desires for self-representation and memory

• ‘sense of audience’ as people expected their insriptions to be seen BUT also found in private contexts

• explosion of epigraphic activity generally dated to Augustus - transformed epigraphy into an Empire-wide vehicle of ideology

Epigraphy - Res Gestae Divi Augusti

• set up on Augustus’ order, after his death in 14AD, in Rome and in provinces

• three copies remain (Greek and Latin) from modern-day Turkey

• narrates Augustus’ accomplishments (from his perspective, deeply subjective)

• usage of epigraphy as an ideological vehicle

Epigraphy - Res Gestae Divi Augusti 1-2

• an epitaph, laudatory inscription, political testament, rendering of accounts, description of new political system, justification of actions, boast

• commemoration of his death and career, written by him, dedicated by the Senate

• bronze usually used for laws or important proclamations which were also placed in temples - therefore he’s putting himself on the same level as the law

• justified and glorified Augustus’ actions, giving a specific ideological reading of recent history

Epigraphy - literacy

• traditional literacy rates estimated at about 10% - caveats for different locations and social groups (men>women, East>West, rich>poor)

• inscriptions like curse tablets and graffiti can demonstrate lower-class literacy

• individual inscriptions could serve to inform specific historical events

What does ‘sculpture’ encompass?

Different materials

• stone

• marble

• bronze

• ivory

• wood

• precious metals

• terracotta

Different forms

• free-standing

• architectural (pediments, metopes, friezes)

• reliefs

Different contexts

• funerary

• religious

• public

• domestic

Different content

• deities

• heroes/mythological characters

• humans (athletes, everyday life)

Sculpture - how is it studied?

What is it?

• type of object

• material used to create it

Who made it and when?

• if artists sign their work this can be used to date / identify multiple similar works

• make use of literary sources, may identify artists

Form/style/technique

• style = shape, eg. naturalistic or schematic representation of human body

• were/what specific techniques used?

Content and iconography

• what does it show?

• some sculptures accompanied by an inscription

• iconography through attributes - deities always presented with the same/similar attributes as a way to identify them

Context and function

• where was it made/found/displayed?

• what was its purpose?

• consider if it could be moved, eg. free-standing statues

Sculpture - Kouroi and Korai

• derived from Egyptian statuary

• rigid arms, stance, similar stylised hair

• shift from schematic to more naturalistic - deliberate?

• potentially meant to represent Apollo? lots found in his sanctuaries, but also others

• meant to represent an idealised human?

• not portrait faces - meant to embody youth and prowess?

Sculpture - ‘Kleobis and Biton’ kouroi

• signed by Polmedes of Argos, ca. 600-575BC

• found in Delphi

• potentially represented certain individuals - identities debated, but clearly meant to be taken together (Herodotus)

• maybe represent Castor and Pollux?

• stylistically = different to typical kouroi as had bigger heads, more muscular, maybe wearing boots

Sculpture - Korai

• from Athenian Acropolis

• generally stylistically similar to kouroi but with more rounded features

• often depicted carrying an offering (bird, fruit, flower, etc.)

• likely a representation of generalised/idealised aristocratic maidens

• ‘La delicate’ = beginning of stylistic change?

Sculpture - Phrasikleia Kore

• from cemetery at Merenda, Attica ca. 550BC

• inscription on base - context of when she died and name of sculptor BUT base/inscription may not correlate to statue

• unopened lotus flower = offering

• patterned clothing

Sculpture - pediment of Temple of Artemis at Corfu

ca. 600-575BC

• from left to right = god and giant? Priam? Medusa, Pegasus, and Chrysaor in middle, Zeus and giant

• one of the earliest examples of pedimentary sculpture

• Doric temple, two limestone pediments

Sculpture - north frieze of Siphnian Treasury

• Delphi, ca. 525BC

• wealthy because of mining gold and silver

• treasury = decorated in detail

• pediment shows Herakles and Apollo fighting for Delphic staff

• portrayal of the Gigantomachy - triumph over disorder and barbarism

  • right = well armed giants, left = advancing gods, some with painted labels

  • stylistically = more in profile

  • larger range of movement in figures BUT still stiff torso/legs

  • closer to naturalistic movement, more dynamism

Sculpture - Classical v Archaic style

Classical

• defined muscles

• clearer facial features

• clearer placement of weight

Archaic

• stiff

• not naturalistic

• smiling

• distinctive/weird hairstyle

Sculpture - Kritios boy

• after 480BC

• found near Acropolis

• attributed to, and named after, sculptor Kritios

• demonstrates change from Archaic style to more naturalistic portrayal

• main difference = change in weight distribution

Sculpture - Riace bronzes

• ca. 460-430BC

• found off coast of Riace, Calabria, Italy

• full size bronze statues of two male figures

• left = 2.05m tall, right = 1.98m tall

• more realistic/natural than Kritios boy

• more defined musculator, more movement

• IDEALISED

• bearded = no longer youths
  

Sculpture - Antikythera youth

• ca. 350-330BC, found as part of Antikythera shipwreck ca. 80BC

• maybe Perseus? BUT no winged sandals, hat, or sword - held in hands and then lost?

• play with proportion and perspective - typical of work by Lysippus (Hellenistic, created portraits of Alexander the Great)

Sculpture - Athenian Parthenon

• building started in 447BC

• metopes and colonnade built 447-442BC, cella and frieze 442-438BC

• inaugurated 438BC

• pediment sculptures created 432BC

• south metopes = centauromachy

  • lapiths = defined musculator, uniformity

  • centaurs = more diverse, hairs/beards central part of characterisation

  • Lapiths = civilised, Centaurs = wild

• Frieze = attempts of humans to control animals

Sculpture - Hellenistic period

• 323-31BC

• from naturalism to realism to hyperrealism

• ‘Baroque’ style

• theatrical, emotive, dramatic

Sculpture - Roman period

• 31BC - 4/5th century BC

• Greek influence and historical attitudes

• different styles to choose from - no real unity of style at any point, disparate/diversity makes dating/locating more difficult

• veristic portraits, historical reliefs, provincial styles

• context = baths, theatres, domestic

Sculpture - Townley Discobolus

• from Hadrian’s villa at Tivoli

• head either restored incorrectly OR found near the body but doesn’t actually correlate to it

• similar to the ‘Lancelotti Discobolus’

Sculpture - veristic portraiture

Faces realistic NOT idealised MAYBE a characterisation

Sculpture - changing depictions of the human body

Archaic

• static, schematic depictions of the body

• characterised by frontal appearance, archaic smile, large eyes

Classical

• naturalistic

• sense of movement and narrative

Hellenistic

• exaggerated forms

• drama, theatricality, emotive

Roman

• all of the above

Domestic decoration - Roman wall painting historical background

• panel paintings imported into Rome in the wake of Roman conquests - largely from Greece - included in spoils of war and therefore processions

• owning and displaying this art a symbol of Roman power

• earliest private displays attempted to recreate public picture galleries

Domestic decoration - Vitruvius De Architectura

• architect, civil/military engineer in first century BC

• describes buildings and types

  • fortifications, temples, theatres, baths, aqueducts

  • materials, machinery, instruments, materials, heating systems

• Book 6 describes/discusses domestic architecture

• Book 7 includes building recommendations

• focus on buildings and them being fit for purpose - architectural viewpoint - sometimes has a moralising tone

Domestic decoration - Pompeii

• Vesuvius eruption 79CE, earthquake 62CE

• snapshot in time

• Potential issues

  • situation means items moved from normal locations

  • affected by looting over time

  • haphazard excavations and paintings - not as highly valued as other artworks

  • reconstructions and wartime bombings

  • some paintings/mosaics physically removed by being cut out of the walls

Domestic decoration - Roman domus

Played a major role in social and political communication and demonstrated social standing

• patronage = domus was where prominent men received their clients/hosted others

• patrons received clients in the atrium and possibly tablinum

• dinner held in triclinium (further inside the house)

Wall paintings (and mosaics) in the domestic context allowed the elite to:

• project their economic and social prosperity/status

• express their tastes and ideas related to social ideology

• reflect patron’s erudition (knowledge of Greek myths/epics/plays)

Domestic decoration - wall paintings in Pompeii

Frescoes

• colours applied to wet plaster, pigments penetrated the plaster and fixed as it dried

• rare find as plaster not durable - many left in situ have faded

Content

• religion - deities, rituals, related objects

• architecture

• natural world - landscapes, still life

• mythology

• everyday life

Paintings classified into four styles

Domestic decoration - first style

• ‘structural’ / ‘masonry’ style

• 2nd century BC

• painted blocks, resemble masonry and marble

• 3D effect created by each rectangle being surrounded by stucco moulding

• vivid colours

Domestic decoration - second style

• ‘architectural’ style

• ca. 110-80BC to 20-10 BC

• some mythological imagery, mostly in friezes

• ‘architectural’ details = columns, buildings, doors, gates (inspired by stage sets?)

• sometimes incorporated first style marble blocks at base of wall

• illusion of looking through window to outside, perspective to create depth

• realistic feel - still life imagery, focal figures framed in alcoves

Domestic decoration - third style

• ‘ornate’/’ornamental’ style

• colourful and finessed

• ca. 12BC to 40CE

• illusionary depth disappears, walls divided into horizontal and vertical zones, divided by columns, folliage

• larger expanses of same colour on walls - black, red, and yellow popular, as is green and blue

• Egyptian influences - Nile scenes, deities, birds, lotus flowers

• central picture panels - often vertical oblongs

Domestic decoration - fourth style

• ‘intricate’ style

• 40CE onwards

• effect of a mosaic of framed pictures on a wall

• eclectic, elements of previous styles in combination

• mythological imagery in central pictures, more square and generally smaller than third style

• stencil type of patterns used as borders on a single colour

Domestic decoration - House of Meleager

• Venus and Mars

• shield and spear

• red cloak on Mars’ lap

• winged cupids

• right cupid holding a a jewellery casket

• dove on the building

• Mars’ hand position = sexual? possessive?

Domestic decoration - House of Dioscuri

• Perseus and Andromeda

• Medusa’s head

• special sword

• dead sea monster

• Andromeda shackled to rock, one breast bared

Domestic decorations - Greek mosaics

• earliest patterned/figurative mosaics appeared around late 5th - early 4th centuries BC

• made from small natural pebbles so limited colours

• finest extant examples from houses in mainland Greece - Olynthos, Eretria, Pella, Vergina

• subjects include drinking/dining, vegetation, wild/marine animals - potentially allude to Dionysus

Domestic decoration - Judgement of Paris

• choosing which goddess to give the apple to

• Paris is the seated figure, exotic style clothing, surrounded by animals

• Hermes with winged shoes, caduceus, winged headpiece

• Athena with helmet and spear

• Hera seated, matronly figure

• Aphrodite

• Cupid and Psyche

Domestic decoration - Hinton St Mary Mosaic

• 4th century CE

• Bellerophon and Pegasus

• early depiction of Christ? Pomegranetes = eternal life, lettering?

• potential representation of Emperor Constantine or Maxentius

• pomegranates positioned poorly = mistakes/issues in laying

Architecture - definition

The art and technique of designing and building - includes conceiving, sketching, planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other constructoins (eg. city walls).

Major architectural works are perceived as cultural symbols and works of art.

Architecture

• Butser Ancient Farm, Hampshire

• architecture of Roman Britain

• Ancient British buildings usually circular - Roman buildings tended to be quadrangular

Architecture - negative features

Postholes

• usually used to define/delineate roundhouses

Robber trenches

• can demonstrate where buildings are