Study Review Week 15

Labor:

Mother experiences contractions

Typically lasts 12-19 hours

Hormone oxytocin makes uterus begin to contract (pitocin is synthetic oxytocin)

• Uterine contractions cause cervix to dilate and fully open

• Contractions initially occur every 8 to 10 minutes and last about 30 seconds

Labor: Second Stage

(typically lasts 90 minutes) - Delivery

• The baby’s head moves through the birth canal.

• This stage ends when the baby is bornv

Labor:Third stage

(shortest stage) – Delivery of the placenta

• Occurs when the child’s umbilical cord and placenta are expelled.

• Third stage lasts only minutes

Lamaze birthing

uses breathing and relaxation techniques

Water birthing

takes place in a pool of warm water.

Obstetricians

specialize in delivering babies and are typically the attendants of choice.

Midwives

are most often nurses; they help deliver some 80 percent of babies in other parts of the world, as opposed to 10 percent of babies in the United States

Doulas

provide emotional, psychological, and educational support; they do not replace an obstetrician or midwife.

Epidural

produces numbness from the waist down.

• Potential effects:

• May depress oxygen flow and slow labor.

• Newborns may be less physiologically responsive, show poorer motor control during the first days after birth, cry more, and have more difficulty

initiating breastfeeding

Cesarean delivery

the baby is surgically removed from the uterus; sometimes called a c-section

• Occurs most frequently when fetal stress appears.

• More prevalent in older mothers.

• May be used when the baby’s position in the birth

canal is breech (feet first) or transverse

(crosswise).

Low Birth Weight

Neonates weighing less than 5.5 pounds

• Pre-term – born 3 or more weeks early

• Small for date – weigh less than 90 percent of the average

• Very low birth weight – less than 3.3 pounds

• Extremely low-birth-weight – less than 2.2 pounds

Kangaroo care

skin-to-skin contact for 2 to 3 hours a day

• Many highly beneficial effects on neonatal functioning

• Infant massages

• Triggers hormonal release that promotes weight gain, muscle development, and neurological development

Postpartum depression

a period of deep depression following childbirth

May be triggered by changes in hormone production after giving birth.

Vernix

greasy cottage cheese” material that smooths the passage through the birth canal

Lanugo

fine dark fuzz covering the body

• Puffy eyelids: accumulation of fluids during labor

• Blood and other fluids may be on parts of the body

Apgar Scale

The Apgar scale is a standard measurement system that looks for a variety of indications of good health

The APGAR directs attention to five qualities:

• Appearance (color)

• Pulse (heart rate)

• Grimace (reflex irritability)

• Activity (muscle tone)

• Respiration (respiratory effort)

-7 to 10 is considered normal

-less than 4 requires immediate resuscitation

Bonding

the close physical and emotional contact between parent and child during the period immediately after birth; may affect later parent–child relationship strength

Proximal caregiving

parents carry babies close to their bodies and share beds with them at night

Distal caregiving

use of strollers, cribs, playpens, and swings, limiting the time spent in close physical contac

Hearing

• A newborn’s auditory acuity is not completely developed

• Hearing usually screened in hospital or within first month

• 6-month-old infants have difficulty detecting tones.

• Auditory perception is refined during early childhood and matures

by age 13.

• Newborns react to and show familiarity with certain kinds of sounds and

prefer their mother’s voices

sensory development

• Carry baby in different positions

• Let infants explore their environments

• Let babies touch and play with their food

• Provide toys that stimulate the senses

Breast-Feeding

associated with higher educational level and SES in developed countries

For babies

disease protection, strengthened immunity, cognitive development, reduced obesity, better long- term health

For mothers

reduced uterine bleeding, lowers weight, better long-term health

• WHO recommends breast-feeding for 2 years, with

introduction of solid foods at 6 months

Habituation

decrease in response to a stimulus

• Occurs after repeated exposures to the same stimulus, occurs in every sensory system.

Orienting response

infants become quiet and attentive to new stimuli

Pourpose of DP

helps parents, understanding children and society

Definition of DP

study of how people change throughout the lifespan

-physical, cognitive, socio-emotional changes

Theory

system of idea intented to explain something based on genetic principals

Hypothesis

a specific testable prediction

Life Span Development

study if human growth across all life steps

Physical

brain, physical body

Socio

relationships and identity

cognitive

thinking

Equafinality

the principle that different processes can lead to similar outcomes in development or behavior.

Multifinality

the concept that similar initial conditions can lead to different outcomes in development or behavior.

Bronfenbrenner’s Approach

five levels of environment that simultaneously influence individual

macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, microsystem, and the individual itself.

Contextual Theory (Vygotsky’s)

how cognitive dev. is affected by social interactions between member of culture

History of Childhood

-1900s young children worked long hours

-the child labor laws were created

-great depression made children in those years grow up to have unstable careers and lives

Age Graded Influences

events or experiences strongly related to a person’s age, predictable and significant impact on development

Development milestone

motor skills, language, and cognitive abilities

Continuous Change

change that is gradual

-there is gains and loses

Discontinuous Loses

behaviors can be very different at different stages if life

Around 6 months

infants loose the ability to distinguish between monkey and human faces

after 6 months infants begin to specialize in recognizing human faces.

Nature

emphasis on discovering inhereited genetic traits and abiities

Nurture

emphasis is on enviromental influences that affect a person’s development

Physical Growth

Infants grow at a rapid pace over the first two years

• By 5 months old, the average birthweight doubles, to around 15

pounds.

• By 1 year old, weight triples, to about 22 pounds.

• By age 2:

• The average child weighs around four times as much as they did at birth.

• Attained about half of their eventual adult height (weigh 27–30 pounds on average)

Physical Growth

At birth, the head accounts for one-quarter of the newborn’s entire body size

four principals of growth

• Cephalocaudal principle: development from the head and upper

body parts downward

• Proximodistal principle: development from the center of the

body outward

• Principle of hierarchical integration: simple skills act as building

blocks for advanced abilities

• Principle of the independence of systems: each body system

develops on its own timeline

Plasticity

developing structure or behavior is modifiable due to experienc

Sensitive period

a specific but limited time of susceptibility to environmental influences

Time when certain areas of the brain are most ready to benefit from experience

Reflexes

unlearned, organized, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli

• Reflexes represent behavior that has survival value.

• Some reflexes stay throughout life; others disappear over time.

• Gradual disappearance is attributed to the increase in voluntary control

or the forming of more complex behaviors.

Motor Development

As babies roll, attempt to sit, or practice crawling, they build the muscular strength to control their body further, enhancing the development of motor skills.

• Gaining more control of voluntary movements

facilitates the development of various cognitive,

perceptual, and social skills

Fine Motor Skills

• By 3 months: Infants can coordinate movements of limbs.

• By 11 months: Infants can grasp an object and pick it up off the ground.

• By age 2: Infants can drink from a cup without spilling.

Dynamic Systems Theory

Dynamic systems theory: a theory of how motor skills develop and are coordinated

• Motor skills do not develop in a vacuum.

• Each skill advances in the context of other motor abilities.

• As motor skills develop, so do nonmotor skills.

• Emphasizes a child’s motivation in advancing motor development.

• Children actively construct their environments (rGE)

Sticky Mittens

• Grasping development associated with advanced social development

• After training with the sticky mittens, infants are more interested in faces

• Early motor development contributes to infants' understanding of the social world

• When motor skills are delayed or impaired social interactions and development could be negatively impacted

distinguishing factors

6-month-old infants distinguished human

or monkey faces equally well

9-month-olds were less adept at

distinguishing monkey faces compared to

human faces.

(Pascalis et al., 2002)

Nutrition

• Without proper nutrition, infants cannot reach their physical potential and

may suffer cognitive and social consequences.

• Infants differ in growth rates, body composition, metabolism, and activity

levels.

• They should consume about 50 calories per day for each pound they weigh.

• Most infants regulate their caloric intake on their own.

Malnutrition

having improper amount and balance of nutrients

• Children show a slower growth rate by 6 months.

• They later have lower IQ scores and tend to do less well in school.

• Risks are greater in underdeveloped countries and in areas with high

poverty rates

Undernutrition

when there is a deficiency in diet.

Behavioral States

degree of awareness to both internal and external stimulation (e.g., quietly sleeping, alert, crying

Sleep

infants spend most of their times leeping.

•Newborns sleep 16-17 hours/day avg.

•Can range from 10 to 20 hours/day.

•Around age 2, infants sleep 11-

14 hours/day (including naps).

•Usually nap 1-3 hours a day

Sleep

• REM—rapid eye movement sleep: associated with dreaming

• REM provides a way for the brain to stimulate itself—a process called

autostimulation.

• Environmental influences and cultural practices affect the sleep patterns of infants.

Sleep Training (e.g., CIO, “Ferber method”)

Behavioral genetics

study of how genes influence behavior

• Methods - twin studies and adoption studies.

Heritability estimates

estimates of genetic responsibility for

differences among persons

Concordance rates

trait similarity between family members

Monozygotic twins:

genetically identical twins

Dizygotic twins

no more genetically similar than two siblings

• different genes (2 sperm + 2 eggs = 2 different zygotes)

Genes and Chromosomes

Humans receive 23 pairs of chromosomes, half from the mother and half from

the father. These chromosomes contain thousands of genes.

• 23rd pair “sex chromosomes”

Genes

the basic units of genetic information, made of DNA

Chromosomes

Rod-shaped portions of DNA; 23 pairs.

• One pair of chromosomes from the mother, one by the father

Genotype

combination of genetic material present (but not outwardly

visible) in an organism (e.g., genetic predisposition for aggression”)

Phenotype

observable trait (e.g., aggressive behavior)

Determining the Sex

The 23rd chromosome determines the sex of the child.

• Females are XX.

• Males are XY.

• Variations also occur (e.g., XXY, XXX, XO, XYY)

• The father’s sperm determines the sex of the child

Epigenetics

Environmental effects on gene expression

Dutch Hunger Winter – Netherlands 1944-1945

Famine caused by German blockade led to tens of thousands of deaths

due to starvation

• People lived on rations of 400-800 calories/day

• Prenatal exposure to famine altered offsprings expression of genes

associated with metabolism

Temperament

consistent patterns of activity/arousal, sociability, and emotionality

Neuroticism

the degree of emotional stability characteristic of an individual.

Extroversion

the degree to which a person seeks to be with others, is outgoing, and is generally sociable.

Genetically heritable psychological disorders:

• Schizophrenia

• Major depressive disorder

• Alcoholism

• Autism spectrum disorder

• Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

• Anxiety

Scarr & McCartney, 1983

1. Actively seeking out environments that are most connected with their genetic

abilities

2. Passive gene–environment influence

3. Evocative environmental influences

Germinal Period

Cell division takes place

• 1 week after conception, mass of 100 cells formed, called blastocyst

During week 2, implantation occurs

• If implantation fails, blastocyst releases during next menstrual

period

Embryonic Period

Embryonic Period

• 3 to 8 weeks gestation

• Neural tube, which forms spinal cord

and brain, develops by week 3

• Eyes, nose, mouth, and heartbeat by

week 4

• Buds that will be arms and legs in

week 5

• Liver, digestive system, and heart’s

separate chambers by week 8

Fetal Period (9 weeks +)

Fetal Period

• 9 weeks after conception until birth

• Tremendous growth in size

• End of first trimester, genitals develop

• Second trimester:

• Movement can be felt by month 4

• Breathes, hiccups, and responds to sound by

end of month 6

Malnutrition

Most common worldwide teratogen

• Eating healthy diets recommended, but not always accessible

• Food deserts

• Folic acid deficiency results in anencephaly and spina bifida

Alcohol

Use during pregnancy may result in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

• Includes facial deformities, heart problems, misshapen limbs, and

cognitive problems

Tobacco

Maternal smoking increases risk of miscarriages, premature birth, and low

birth weight

• Infant effects include difficulty breathing and impaired heart functioning

• Childhood effects include poorer language skills, attention and memory

problems, behavior problems

Experiencing Emotions

• Emotion has three components: biological arousal, a

cognitive component, and a behavioral component.

• Emotional expressions reflect emotional experiences.

• Emotions experienced at birth are fairly restricted

• Emotions become more complex with age

Primary Emotions

• Primary Emotions

• Basic emotions we share with other animals (sadness,

happiness, anger, disgust, fear, and sometimes surprise)

• Secondary emotions

• Develop later

• Blends of primary emotions

Emotions

Emotions are described by

valence and arousal

• Circumplex model

o Your experience of affect

can be categorized by a

certain degree of valence

(negative to positive) and

by a certain level of

arousal (low to high)

Social referencing:

the intentional search for information about others’

feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and

events

• first occurs around age 8 or 9 months.

• aids in understanding others’ behavior in context.

Two Explanations of Social Referencing

1) Observing someone else’s facial expression brings about the emotion the

expression represents.

• 2) Viewing another’s facial expression provides information that guides infant

behavior.

Self-awareness

knowledge of oneself.

• Often assessed by the mirror-and-rouge task.

• Emerges around 17 to 24 months of age.

Contact comfort

cuddling a cloth monkey was preferred over clinging to a wire monkey with

food

Food is not the basis for attachment.

Attachment

an enduring emotional bond that develops between a child and a preferred

individual

Attachment Theory

Bowlby proposed attachment theory which suggested that children

form bonds with their caregivers that set the stage for their later relationships

•

Ainsworth Strange Situation

a sequence of staged episodes that

illustrates the strength of attachment between a child and (typically) their

mother

• Technique used to measure attachment

Four major attachment patterns:

1. Secure

2. Avoidant (i.e., dismissive)

3. Anxious (i.e., preoccupied)

4. Disorganized ( i.e., fearful-avoidant

Separation Anxiety

the distress displayed by infants when a primary

caregiver leaves

• Usually begins at about age 7 or 8 months, peaks around 14 months,

and then decreases around 1.5-2 years.