FAD3220 Exam 2

Initiative vs Guilt

By Erikson

• Initiative vs guilt: a period of time where children age 3-6 years (preschool) experience conflict between independence of actions and the sometimes negative consequences/results of those actions.

initiative= the desire to act independently

VERSUS

guilt= the unintended consequences of these actions

may lead to feelings of guilt or shame when they fail to meet expectations or experience punishment/ criticism

Self concept/ View of self

Self concept is one’s identity, view of self; a set of beliefs one has about themselves as an individual.

• preschoolers self concept tends to be not accurate, too optimistic, and overestimates abilities.

preschoolers self concept is culturally bound:

• collectivist view (East Asian): view themselves as part of a large social network in which they are responsible to others.

• individualistic view (Western): emphasizes personal identity, focuses on uniqueness of the individual.

Functional Play

simple. repetitive activities typical of a 3 year old child;

Example: pushing toy car across floor, jumping, skipping;

• being active/doing something active rather than creating something.

Constructive Play

a child manipulating objects to produce or build something.

Example: building a Lego house or putting a puzzle together.

• Ultimate goal is to produce something

• helps develop motor skills, cognitive skills, problem solving, and cooperation.

Parallel Play

children playing with similar toys and doing similar activities but not interacting witch each other.

Ex: children drawing next to one another, playing toy cars next to each other but not with one another

Onlooker Play

Children watching other children play but not partaking or playing; don’t play themselves

Ex: Child watching another child play with legos

Associative Play

two or more children interacting with one another by sharing toys/materials although they do not do the same thing,

Have their own separate goals

Ex: Two children building sharing blocks to build their own legos, or sharing crayons to make their own drawings Children

Cooperative Play

children genuinely play with one another, taking turns, playing games, or devising contests

Shared goal

Ex: children doing a racing contest, playing a board game together

False belief Test

Preschoolers are shown a doll named Maxi who places a piece of chocolate in a cabinet. After Maxi leaves, his mother comes and moves the piece of chocolate elsewhere. Preschoolers are asked where Maxi will look for the chocolate when he returns.

• preschoolers (3 y/o) answer that Maxi will look for the chocolate in the cabinet.

• preschoolers 4 y/o however, understand that Maxi has false belief that the the chocolate is in the cabinet and so that is where he will look.

Authoritarian parenting style

• cold, rigid, controlling style. Value strict, unquestioning obedience.

children are withdrawn, show little sociability and are not friendly, The girls are dependent on their parents while boys are unusually hostile.

Permissive parenting style

• Little to no limits/control on children’s behavior; involved in children’s lives.

Children are dependent and moody; they have little self control and show low social skills.

Authoritative parenting style

• set clear, firm, consistent limits. Involved with children’s lives; try to reason with them and explain why they should behave.

Best off children; they are independent, self assertive, social, cooperative. Typically successful and likeable.

Uninvolved parenting style

• Little to no limits on children’s behavior; not involved in children’s lives and are indifferent/ show rejecting behavior.

Children are worst off, they show disrupted emotional development. They feel unloved and emotionally detached. May show low cognitive or or physical development.

instrumental aggression

aggression motivated by desire to obtain a concrete goal

• Example: to get something, like a toy another child is playing with.

• Higher in boys than girls

relational aggression

Intended to hurt another person’s feelings through non-physical means

• Example: name calling, withholding friendship, or saying mean/hurtful things to make the recipient feel bad

• Higher in girls than boys

Obesity

most common factors:

• genetic factors

• unhealthy eating patterns

• lack of physical activity

• combination of these

Sometimes obesity can be cause by medical conditions such as a hormonal problem. This is rare to see in children.

• School-age children tend to engage in relatively little exercise and are not particularly fit.

Gross motor skills

include large movements.

For example: Bike riding, ice skating, playing sports, swimming, skipping rope.

• Boys outperform girls. But when you compare boys and girls who partake in similar activities there is little to no difference in gross motor skills. Induced by societal expectations

Fine motor skills

small movements

For example: typing on a computer, drawing, writing.

• Necessary for wide range of school related tasks

• influenced by increase in amount of Myelin in ages 6-8; speeds up electrical impulses between nerves

Childhood onset fluency disorder (stuttering)

substantial disruption in fluency and rhythm of speech; most common speech impairment.

• About 20% of all children go through stage

• No real reason identified yet about cause of stuttering.

Learning Disabilities

interfere with a child’ s ability to listen, speak, read, write, reason, or do math.

For example: dyslexia; a reading disability with misperception of letters, difficulty spelling or sounding out letters, and left-right confusion

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Learning disorder marked by inattention, impulsiveness, a low tolerance for frustration and generally a great deal of inappropriate activity.

Common symptoms include:

• persistent difficulty in finishing tasks, following instructions and organizing work

• fidgeting, squirming, inability to watch a whole tv program

• frequent disruption of others or excessive talking

• tendency to jump into a task before hearing all instructions

• difficulty in waiting or remaining seated

Brains of children with ADHD show less thickening of cortex compared to typical children in same age.

ADHD treatment controversy

Ritaline or dexadrine reduce activity levels in hyperactive children and are routinely prescribed

• effective in increasing attention span and compliance BUT side effects considerable and long term health consequences are unclear.

Piaget: Concrete Operational Stage

a period of cognitive development between 7 and 12 that’s categorized by the active and appropriate use of logic.

shift from preoperational to concrete operational

For example: children are asked whether pouring water from one cup to another changes the amount of water and they understand that it remains the same. Not judging solely on appearance.

Decentering vs Reversibility

Decentering: the ability to take multiple aspects of a situation into account.

• being less egocentric

Reversibility: the notion that transformations to a stimulus can be reversed. Objects, numbers, or actions can be reversed.

For example: A clay ball that has been stretched out can be squished back into a ball again. Or water poured from one cup into another pf diff shape can be poured back. or 3+5 = 8, so does 5+3.

once concrete operation takes place children understand the concept of reversibility.

Information Processing

Increasing ability to process information

• their memory improves

• short term memory capacity improvement

Metamemory

an understanding about the processes that underlie memory. which emerges and improves during middle childhood.

• children begin to understand what memory is and that some people have better memory than others.

Vygotsky’s approach to cognitive development

cognitive advances occur through exposure to information within a child’s zone of proximal development

• ZPD refers to the gap between what a child can do and a child’s potential/capability to do something.

Vygotsky claims education should focus on activities that involve interaction with others.

Cooperative learning where children work in groups to achieve a common goal

Reciprocal teaching: technique used to teach reading comprehension strategies.

Stages of reading

• No other task is more fundamental to schooling that learning to read

Stage 0: from birth to first grade children learn the pre-reqs for reading; letter identification, recognition of familiar words.

Stage 1: first real type of reading. Involves phonological recoding skills. Encompasses first to second grade.

Stage 2: Second and third graders; children learn to read aloud with fluency. However they don’t attach much meaning to the words bc the effort involved in simply sounding out words is so great.

Stage 3: fourth to eighth grade; reading becomes a way to learn. Reading before was an accomplishment in itself but now it is used to learn about the world.

Stage 4: children are able to read and process information that reflects multiple points of view. Begins in transition to high school

Fluid Intelligence

reflects the ability to reason, think logically and solve problems INDEPENDENT OF PAST KNOWLEDGE.

Relies on novel problem solving, abstract thinking, and working memory, creative abstract thinking.

For example: a student solves a riddle, solving a puzzle

Crystalized intelligence

is the information, skills, and strategies that people have accumulated through experience.

Fact based, prior learning and experience, ability to use acquired knowledge to solve problems.

For example: a student solves a crossword puzzle by recalling words they have already learned in the past. recalling history events, mathematical formulas.

Triarchic theory of Intelligence

Sternberg’s theory of intelligence is made up of three major components:

componential: reflects how efficiently people process and analyze information.

experiential: insightful component of intelligence people with strong experimental component can compare new knowledge w what they know and combine and relate known facts in creative ways.

contextual: practical intelligence or ways of dealing with everyday commands.

Mainstreaming

an educational approach in which exceptional children are integrated as much as possible into the regular education system with a broad range of alternatives

Industry vs Inferiority stage

According to Erikson, the period from age 6-12 characterized by a focus on efforts to meet the challenges presented by parents, peers, school, and the complex modern world.

• during this period children direct their energies to the challenges presented by the world and school/friends/family.

• Success in this stage brings feelings of mastery but difficulties in this stage can lead to feelings of failure and inadequacy.

Self esteem

self esteem is an individuals overall and specific positive and negative self evaluation

• compare themselves to others

• developing their own standards

Breaking the cycle of Failure

• promoting development of positive self esteem

• using authoritative child rearing parenting style

Kohlberg: Moral development and stages

• uses moral dilemmas to asses moral reasoning and justice

Preconventional morality (stages 1 and 2): people follow unvarying rules based on rewards and punishment. their main considerations are avoidance of being punished nd desire for rewards.

stage 1: obedience and punishment orientation

stage 2: reward orientation (people obey rules to earn rewards)

Conventional Morality (stages 3-4): people behave in ways that will win the approval of others. approach problems in terms of their OWN POSITION as a good member in society

Stage 3:”good boy” morality; people want to be respected by others while still trying to do what they are supposed to.

stage 4: societal order maintaining morality; obeying society’s rules is right in itself

Post Conventional Morality (stages 5-6): universal moral principles

Friends in Middle childhood

• provide emotional support

• help handle stress

• teach control their emotions

• teach about communication

• foster intellectual growth

• practice relationship skills

Stages of friendship

Stage 1 (4-7 years): children see friends as other who like them and who they share toys with and other activities. choose friends for their behavior.

Stage 2 (8-10 years): basing friendship on trust. take others personal qualities and traits as well as the rewards they provide into consideration

Stage 3(11-15 years): basing friendships on psychological closeness, based on intimacy and loyalty.

Bullying

90% of children report being bullied.

different types of bullying include: verbal, physical, relational, and cyberbullying

Single parent families

a majority (69%) live with two parents, 31% live in some other arrangement. In majority of these cases the single parent is mother

consequences of living in single parent home depend on:

• whether other parent ever lived at home

• economic status

Blended families

blended family: remarried couple that has at last one stepchild living with them

• living in blended families involves role ambiguity, in which roles and expectations are unclear.

families with gay parents

1-5 million US families are headed by gay parents

Puberty

the period in which the sexual organs mature.

begins when the pituitary gland in brain signals other glands to produce androgens (male hormones) or estrogens (female hormones)

Males and females produce both types of sex hormones but males produce more androgen and females produce more estrogen.

the hormone leptin also plays a role in onset of puberty.

begins earlier in girls than boys, girls start 11-12 boys start 13-14, wide variation among individuals and influenced by envrionment

Primary sex characteristics

associated with the development of the organs and body structures related directly to reproduction

• testes in males

• ovaries in females

Secondary sex characteristics

the visible signs of sexual maturity that do not involve the sex organs directly

Secondary sex characteristic in females include the development of breasts and pubic hair.

Secondary se characteristics in boys icludes pubic and facial hair

Obesity ( eating disorder) / adolescents

Changes:

• the ratio of body fat to muscle increases

• metabolism rate decreases

Causes:

• the lack of exercise

• availability of fast foods

• leisure time with media

Anorexia nervosa and Bulimia nervosa

Anorexia: the starvation to maintain low weight

Bulimia: binge and purge eating; vomiting or the use of laxatives after feeling guilt or depression that they intentionally rid themselves of the food.

• 1% anorexic and 3% bulimic

• higher incidence among females

Brain development & prefrontal cortex

teenagers tend to assert themselves more as they gain greater independence.

prefrontal cortex undergoes considerable development during adolescence but is still immature. Allows ppl to think evaluate and make complex judgements.

The prefrontal cortex also provides impulse control. However the prefrontal cortex in adolescence is immature and the ability to inhibit impulses is not fully developed. this immaturity may lead to some of the risky and impulsive behaviors charcterized in adolescence.

Binge drinking

Binge drinking affects bingers and non bingers. Non drinkers have reported being disturbed by drunken students while sleeping or studying, have been insulted/humiliated, or sexual assault or date rape.

brain scans show damaged tissue, they have thinner and lower volume regions in the prefrontal cortex nd cerebullar regions and their white matter is reduced

Piaget’s pendulum problem & Formal operational stage

the task was to compare the motions of longer and shorter strings (pendulums) with lighter and heavier weights attached, in order to determine the influence of weight , string length, and dropping point on the time it takes the pendulum to swing back and forth.

During concrete operation stage (6-11): no systematic plan of action to determine influence on pendulum. Varied many factors at once there was no way of knowing what made a difference.

• mastery of logic development of rational thinking

During formal operational stage (12+): Systematic plan.

• development of abstract and hypothetical reasoning.

• development of propositional logic-reasoning that uses abstract logic in the absence of concrete examples.

Information processing and metacognition

Information processing approach: the model that seeks to identify the way that individuals take in, use, and store information

Metacognition: the knowledge of one’s own thinking processes and the ability to monitor one’s own cognition.

• metacognition improves during adolescence

• thinks about own thoughts —→ self consciousness

• monitors own learning processes more efficiently

• paces own studying

Adolescent egocentrism

is a state of self absorption in which the world is seen as focused on oneself. This egocentrism makes adolescents highly critical of authority figures, hostile to criticism, and quick to find fault with others behavior.

Imaginary audience: an adolescents belief that his or her own behavior is a primary focus of other’s attention and concerns

For example: a teenager at a baseball game may be convinced that everyone is staring at the pimple on his/her chin

Personal fables: the view held by some adolescents that what happens to them is unique, exceptional, and shared by no one else.

For example: teenagers whose romantic relationships have ended may feel that no one has ever hurt the way they do, or that no one was ever treated so badly and that no one can understand their pain.

Self concept: what am i like?

In adolescence, their self concept view broadens; they distinguish other’s views from their own assessment. In childhood they would’ve characterized themselves by traits that would not differentiate their view from others.

• more organized and coherent; they view themselves in terms of traits and multiple aspects.

Self esteem: How do i like myself?

Although adolescents increasingly perceive who they are (self concept) this does not mean they like themselves.

• adolescents evaluate aspects of themselves in different way.

for example: an adolescent may have high self esteem i regards to academics but lower self esteem in relationships.

SES (socioeconomic status) & gender

Adolescents of higher socioeconomic status tend to have higher self esteem than those of lower SES.

Identity vs Identity confusion (adolescence)

the period during which teenagers seek to determine what is unique and distinctive about themselves.

• awareness of uniqueness of self; and knowledge of roles.

• Inability to identity appropriate roles in life

adolescents who do not find a suitable identity may off course in several ways. they may adopt socially unacceptable roles to express what they do NOT want to be. In general their sense of self becomes “diffuse” failing to organize around a unified core identity

Marcia’s 4 categories of adolescent development

Marcia suggests that identity can be seen in terms of two characteristics: crisis and commitment

commitment is psychological investment in a course of action or ideology

crisis: period in which an adolescent consciously chooses between various alternatives and makes decisions.

• identity achievement (commitment & crisis/exploration): teens in this category have successfully explored and thought through who they are and what they want to do. They are psychologically healthier and higher achievement motivation and moral reasoning

• Identity foreclosure (commitment, no crisis/exploration): these are adolescents who have committed to an identity without passing through a period of crisis in which they explored alternatives. They seek approval of others and tend to be authoritarian, & happy and self satisfies “ rigid strength”

• Moratorium (no commitment, crisis/exploration): adolescents in this category have explored alternatives butt made no commitments. they show relatively high anxiety and seek intimacy with others.

• Identity diffusion (no commitment, no crisis/exploration): these adolescents consider alternatives but neither explore or commit to various alternatives. They tend to shift from one thing to the next. Lack of commitment and are socially withdrawn.

Depression and Suicide in Adolescence

Depression adolescence: 3% incidence; higher among girls than boys. Girls may be more likely to react to stress by turning inward

Causes: biological, environmental, and social factors.

Adolescent suicide: suicide is second most common death for 15-24 year old’s, after accidents.

possible causes:

• depression

• family conflicts

• history of abuse/neglect

• drug and alcohol abuse

Four categories of adolescent’s popularity

Popular (high status): uniformly liked by everyone; have more of close friends, are very social

Controversial (high status): like by some and disliked by others; have more close friends

Neglected (low status): not disliked nor liked by others; have fewer friends

Rejected (low status): uniformly disliked by others and have few friends.