unit 1 psych - scientific foundations

Selective attention

The ability to focus on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

Executive functioning

High-level cognitive processes (planning, focus, inhibition).

Spacing & testing effects

Better memory retention when study is spaced out or when actively tested.

Massed v. distributed practice

"Cramming" (massed) vs. studying over time (distributed).

Maintenance & elaborative rehearsal

Repeating info (maintenance) vs. linking info to prior knowledge (elaborative).

Confirmation bias

Seeking information that confirms what we already believe.

Hindsight bias

Believing an event was predictable after it has already occurred.

Overconfidence

Thinking our judgments/predictions are more accurate than they are.

Measures of central tendency

Statistics representing the 'center' of data: mean (average), median (middle), mode (most frequent).

Normal curve

A bell-shaped distribution where most scores fall near the average.

Positive + negative skews

A distribution where the 'tail' is on the right (positive) or left (negative).

Bimodal distribution

A dataset with two distinct peaks (modes).

Range

The distance between the highest and lowest scores.

Standard deviation

A measure of how spread out the numbers are from the mean.

Percentile rank

A score's percentage rank relative to a norm group.

Scatterplot

A graph using points to show the relationship between two variables.

Correlation coefficient

A number (-1 to +1) indicating the strength and direction of a relationship.

Regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme scores to move toward the average over time.

Statistical significance

Determining if a result likely happened by chance or is a true effect.

Effect sizes

The magnitude of a difference or relationship.

Meta-analysis

A statistical synthesis of multiple studies.

Case studies

In-depth analysis of one individual or group.

Correlations

Observing a relationship between variables without manipulating them.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in naturally occurring environments.

Experiments

Research where one variable is manipulated to see its effect.

Independent variable

The variable being changed/manipulated.

Dependent variable

The variable being measured (the outcome).

Experimental/Control group

The group getting the treatment vs. the group not getting the treatment.

Population/Sample

The entire group being studied vs. the subset actually participating.

Random/Representative/Convenience

Types of samples: randomly selected vs. matches population vs. easily accessible.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction.

Operational definition

Specific, measurable definitions of research variables.

Quantitative/Qualitative

Numerical data vs. descriptive/subjective data.

Replication/Peer review

Repeating a study to confirm results vs. evaluation by other experts.

Confounding variables

Outside factors that might accidentally influence results.

Informed consent & assent

Participants agree to take part after being told risks/benefits (assent is for minors).

Protection from harm

Ensuring the physical and mental well-being of participants.

Confidentiality

Keeping participant identities and data private.

Deception

Misleading participants about the study's purpose (must be justified).

Debriefing

Explaining the true purpose of the study after it ends.

Institutional Review Board

The committee that approves research ethics.

Animal participants

Guidelines for the ethical treatment of non-human subjects.