RESEARCH METHODS ALL FLASHCARDS

What is positivism? (positivist)

The view that sociology should be scientific, objective and based on measurable facts.

What do positivists believe about human behaviour? (positivist)

That it is patterned, predictable and can be measured scientifically.

What type of approach is positivism? (positivist)

A macro, structural approach.

What is quantitative data? (positivist)

Numerical data such as statistics, percentages and frequencies.

Which methods produce quantitative data? (positivist)

Questionnaires, structured interviews, content analysis.

What is reliability? (positivist)

The ability to repeat research and get the same results.

Why do positivists value reliability? (positivist)

Because repeatability verifies accuracy.

What is objectivity? (positivist)

Conducting research without personal bias or values influencing results.

What is representativeness? (positivist)

When a sample reflects the wider population being studied.

What is generalisability? (positivist)

When findings from a sample can be applied to the wider population.

What is validity? (interpretivist)

Whether research gives a true, authentic picture of what is being studied.

What are the benefits of positivism? (positivist)

Scientific approach, clear patterns, predictions, objectivity, government support.

What is interpretivism? (interpretivist)

The view that humans are conscious, active beings whose meanings must be understood.

What did Weber argue? (interpretivist)

Humans cannot be studied like objects; we must understand their meanings.

What is verstehen? (interpretivist)

Understanding the world from someone else’s point of view.

What is empathy in research? (interpretivist)

Understanding people’s meanings and social actions.

What is researcher bias? (interpretivist)

When the researcher’s values influence what they notice or record.

What is rapport? (interpretivist)

Building trust so respondents give honest, detailed answers.

What is ethnography? (interpretivist)

Immersing yourself in a social setting to understand meanings.

What is qualitative data? (interpretivist)

Words, meanings, feelings and experiences.

What do positivists say about interpretivists? (positivist)

Their research is unstructured, biased, unrepresentative and unreliable.

What is triangulation? (both)

Using multiple methods to cross‑check findings.

What are the three factors affecting research? (neutral)

Practical, ethical and theoretical factors.

What are practical factors? (neutral)

Time, cost, access, subject matter, researcher characteristics.

What are ethical factors? (neutral)

Consent, privacy, avoiding harm, legality, moral acceptability.

What is random sampling? (positivist)

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

What is systematic random sampling? (positivist)

Selecting every nth person from a list.

What is stratified random sampling? (positivist)

Dividing the population into groups and sampling each proportionally.

What is quota sampling? (positivist)

Filling pre‑set categories until the quota is met.

What is purposive sampling? (interpretivist)

Selecting participants who fit the research purpose.

What is opportunity sampling? (interpretivist)

Using people who are easily available.

What is snowball sampling? (interpretivist)

Using participants to recruit further participants.

What is volunteer sampling? (interpretivist)

Participants volunteer after seeing an advert.

What is a pilot study? (neutral)

A small trial run to test questions and procedures.

What are social problems? (neutral)

Issues causing harm or anxiety in society.

What are sociological problems? (neutral)

Any aspect of social life that can be studied.

What influences topic choice? (neutral)

Researcher values, academic debates, funding, access.

What is a hypothesis? (positivist)

A testable prediction.

What is grounded theory? (interpretivist)

Letting theories emerge from the data.

What is operationalisation? (positivist)

Turning concepts into measurable indicators.

What is a longitudinal study? (both)

Research following the same people over time.

Strengths of longitudinal studies? (both)

how change over time; rich data.

Weaknesses of longitudinal studies? (both)

Drop‑out, loss of validity, researcher over‑involvement.

What is a questionnaire? (positivist)

A written list of questions for respondents to complete.

What are open questions? (interpretivist)

Questions allowing detailed, qualitative answers.

What are closed questions? (positivist)

Fixed‑choice questions producing quantitative data.

Strengths of questionnaires? (positivist)

Cheap, quick, representative, reliable, anonymous.

Weaknesses of questionnaires? (interpretivist)

Low validity, low response rate, imposition problem.

What are interviews? (both)

Asking people questions face‑to‑face, by phone or online.

What are structured interviews? (positivist)

Fixed questions asked in the same order.

Strengths of structured interviews? (positivist)

Reliable, quick, large samples, clear data.

Weaknesses of structured interviews? (interpretivist)

Inflexible, low validity, interviewer bias.

What are semi‑structured interviews? (both)

Mostly closed questions with some open ones.

What are unstructured interviews? (interpretivist)

Guided conversations with no fixed structure.

Strengths of unstructured interviews? (interpretivist)

High validity, rapport, flexible.

Weaknesses of unstructured interviews? (positivist)

Hard to analyse, subjective, time‑consuming.

What are group interviews? (interpretivist)

Interviewing several people together.

What are focus groups? (interpretivist)

Participants discuss issues with minimal researcher input.

What is non‑participant observation? (positivist)

Observing without taking part.

What is participant observation? (interpretivist)

Researcher joins the group being studied.

Strengths of participant observation? (interpretivist)

High validity, verstehen, rich insight.

Weaknesses of participant observation? (both)

Researcher effect, danger, going native.

What are official statistics? (positivist)

Government‑collected numerical data.

What are unofficial statistics? (positivist)

Numerical data collected by non‑government sources.

Strengths of official statistics? (positivist)

Cheap, reliable, representative, up‑to‑date.

Weaknesses of official statistics? (interpretivist)

Socially constructed, lack meanings, political manipulation.

What are media products? (neutral)

Newspapers, TV, films, adverts, websites etc.

What is content analysis? (positivist)

Counting how often certain words, images or themes appear in media texts.

Strengths of content analysis? (positivist)

Cheap, reliable, comparative, longitudinal.

Weaknesses of content analysis? (interpretivist)

Time‑consuming, subjective categories, out‑of‑context interpretation.

What is respondent validation? (interpretivist)

Checking findings with participants to ensure accuracy.

What is transcription? (neutral)

Writing out recorded interviews word‑for‑word.

What is reflexivity? (interpretivist)

Researcher reflecting on how their values influence the research.

What is the Hawthorne effect? (both)

Participants change behaviour because they know they’re being observed.

What is cherry‑picking? (interpretivist)

Selecting only data that fits the researcher’s views.

What is going native? (interpretivist)

Becoming too close to participants and losing objectivity.

What does value‑laden mean? (interpretivist)

Research influenced by the researcher’s personal values.

What is methodological pluralism? (both)

Combining different methods to build a fuller picture.