psychology chapter one

critical thinking

thinking that doesn’t automatically accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

critical inquiry

the action of doing critical thinking

empirical approach

gaining knowledge based on observations and experience rather than belief

structuralism

an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind (example: asking people to describe the taste, texture, and feeling of an apple.) This was not practical because different individuals had different opinions making it subjective and doesn’t prove anything.

functionalism

an early school of thought promoted by William James and influenced by Darwin; studied how the mind works to help us adapt and survive in our environment, wanted to understand the purpose of our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. (example:putting hungry cats in a puzzle box and putting food outside the box. The cats accidentally hit a lever and escaped and when put back in, they were faster at hitting the lever showing trial and error.)

behaviorism

the scientific study of observable behavior

Freudian

the ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect our behavior

humanistic

focuses on growth potential, need for love and acceptance, and environments that nurture or limit personal growth (maslow’s hierarchy of needs). Rejects behaviorism and Freudian because found it limiting and negative

cognitive

the study of mental processes involved in perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking, community, and solving problems (similar to structuralism but instead of asking people how they felt, it uses computers to measure reaction time and brain scans)

evolutionary

looking at human behavior and processes by looking at how they helped our ancestors survive and reproduce (using principles of natural selection) How are humans alike because of our shared biology and evolutionary history

nature vs nurture

debate if human traits are present at birth or do they develop through experience (they work together - “nurture works on what nature provides”)

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences of behavior (how do we individually differ because of our different genes and environments?)

cross cultural

looking at how a person’s cultural background, traditions, and societal rules shape their behavior, thoughts, and emotions (culture shapes behavior)

gender

different genders have differences in dreaming, communication, style, and risk for disorders such as depression or eating disorders

clinical psychologists

assessing and treating people with mental, emotional, and behavior disorders

psychiatrists

medical doctors that prescribe drugs and treat physical causes of psychological disorders

applied psychologists

uses findings from research and applies to real world problems

hindsight bias

I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon

overconfidence

humans tend to think we know more than we do

psychology in a post-truth world

objective (unbiased) facts and scientific evidence carry less weight compared to emotional and personal beliefs

political party bias

people from both democratic party and Republicans have bias toward the other group such as rejecting dating partners or even college scholarships. This bias creates “bubbles” where people only accept information that fits their existing opinions

scientific method

curiosity, skepticism, and humility

theory

explanation using observations and can be confirmed through an experiment, brings together a massive collection of proven hypotheses, laws, and data into one big explanation

hypothesis

educated guess that can be tested

replication

repeating a study or experiment to see if you get the same results

case studies

in depth analyses of individuals or groups

naturalistic observation

observing individuals in their natural environment

survey

asking people questions (less depth)

wording effect

A specific choice of words, or the way a question is framed, changes how people answer it. Researchers have to be careful to write neutral questions so they don’t accidently manipulate the answers

random sample

unfairly selected participants chosen from a larger population for a study. Every person in the entire population had to have an equal chance of being chosen, this way the findings accurately represent the larger whole

correlation

a measure of extent to which 2 factors vary together, and thus of how either factor predicts the other

positive (above 0 to +1) correlation

a direct relationship, the 2 things increase or decrease together (for example weight and height, if your height goes up so does your weight)

negative correlation (below 0 to -1)

an inverse relationship, when one thing increases the other decreases (more face masks equals less COVID)

causation

one event directly causes another event to happen (you flip a light switch then the light turns on)

experimentation

method to discover cause and effect relationships, only research method that can prove causation

manipulation

cause and effect, intentionally changing a factor (independent) to see what effect it has on something else

experimental group vs control

experimental: receives treatment

control: does not receive treatment

random assignment

people are placed into either experimental group or control completely by chance, balances out both groups

double blind procedure

both the participants nor the doctor/researcher knows which group is receiving the treatment

placebo effect

just thinking about the treatment boosts spirits, relaxes the body, and relieve symptoms (this could be misleading when trying to determine if a medicine works)

independent vs dependent

independent: cause, the factor you change

dependent: the outcome you measure, depends on independent variable

animal research ethics

replacement: if a study can be done with something else, then animals should not be used

reduction: use the minimum number of animals required

refinement: minimize potential pain, suffering, or distress to animals

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate